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A Level: Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

(109 cards)

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1
Q

What is the IV

A

The variable that is changed (manipulated)

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2
Q

What is the DV

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher

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3
Q

Define operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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4
Q

Define extraneous variable

A

Any variable other than the IV that can affect the DV

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5
Q

What are confounding variables

A

Variables that are not the IV that have had an effect on the DV because they haven’t been controlled -thus confounding or ruining the results of a study making the results unreliable

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6
Q

What are situational variables

A

Things that are connected to the research situation which could affect the DV so should be controlled

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7
Q

What are participant variables

A

Things that are connected with the research participant which could affect the DV so should be controlled

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8
Q

Define aims

A

General statements of what the researcher intends to investigate the purpose of the study

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9
Q

Define hypothesis

A

A clear precise and testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

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10
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

One that always predicts that any difference or relationship is down to chance so there is NO significant difference

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11
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis

What are the two types

A

One that always predicts that something will happen

Non-directional and directional

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12
Q

Explain the difference between a directional and a non directional hypothesis

A

A non-directional hypothesis states that there is a difference but does not state the difference directly

Directional hypothesis clearly defines the difference that there will be between the two conditions (operationalises the outcome)

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13
Q

Briefly state the four different types of experiment

A

Lab experiment
Natural
Field
Quasi

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14
Q

Describe a lab experiment (evaluate)

A

The variables are highly controlled
Participants know they are taking part
Artificial
(Pro: establish cause and effect/can be replicated)
(Con: lacks ecological validity/ demand characteristics)

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15
Q

Describe a field experiment (evaluate)

A

Some control over variables
Participants do not know they are taking part
Real life
(Pro: high ecological validity/ less chance of demand characteristics)
(Con: cannot be replicated/ cannot establish cause and effect)

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16
Q

Describe a natural experiment (evaluate)

A 
No control over variables
Participants do not know they are taking part 
Real life (mostly)
(Pro: high ecological validity/less chance of demand characteristics)
(Con: cannot establish cause and effect/ cannot be replicated)
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17
Q

Describe a quasi experiment (evaluate)

A

Not strictly an experiment
Variables just exist
(Pro: can establish cause and effect/ replicated)
(Con: lacks ecological validity/ demand characteristics)

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18
Q

Briefly name and explain the three experimental group designs

A

Independent group design= different participants do each condition (one each)
Repeated measures= all participants do both conditions
Mixed pairs design= different participants are matched to one another and each placed in separate conditions

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19
Q

Evaluate independent Group design

A

✅Reduced demand characteristics

✅No order effects

❌Participant variables

❌More participants needed

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20
Q

Evaluate repeated measures design

A

✅No participant variables

✅Less participants needed

❌Demand characteristics

❌Order effects

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21
Q

EValuate matched pairs design

A

✅Reduced participant variables

✅No order effects

❌More participants needed

❌Difficult to match exactly

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22
Q

Name for ways that variables can be controlled

A

Counterbalancing

Standardisation

Randomisation

Random allocation

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23
Q

Explain what is meant by counterbalancing

A

It does not remove or prevent order effects but attempts to balance out the effects of order between two conditions
Half the participants take part in condition A then B the other take part in conditions B then A

used ONLY IN repeated measures

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24
Q

Explain what is meant by standardisation

A

All participants are subjected to the same environment information and experience

Same instructions and tasks

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25
Explain what is meant by randomisation
To reduce bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions minimise the effect of extraneous variables
26
Explain what is meant by random allocation
To address the problem of participant variables ONLY in an independent group design participants should be randomly allocated to different conditions
27
Define demand characteristics
Participants revealing the purpose of the investigation and changing their behaviour
28
Define generalisation
Extent to which findings and conclusions from an investigation can be applied to the population
29
What is volunteer sampling and evaluate
Participants select themselves to be part of an experiment ✅Less time-consuming ❌Volunteer bias
30
What is opportunity sampling
Researcher selects those who are most readily available ``` Pro= easy less time consuming Con= researcher bias ```
31
What is random sampling and evaluate
Researcher picks names out of hat of those in the target population RANDOMLY Pro=unbiased Con=does not guarantee a representative sample
32
What is systematic sampling
Gather names of those in target population and use a system, e.g every other 6 people are selected Pro=avoid researcher bias Con=not objective (researcher chooses how people are listed etc)
33
What is stratified sampling evaluate
Identify different sub groups in population, work out the ratio needed, randomly sampling participants from each sub group Pro=very representative/ no researcher bias Con= time consuming
34
When is a orrelation used
When there is a relationship
35
Evaluate using a correlation
✅Good preliminary tool for research=establish a link ✅used to study behaviour when it would be unethical to do so in a experiment ❌does not show cause and effect
36
Explain the difference of covert and overt
Covert is observing people without their knowledge Overt is observing people who know they are being studied (pro=no ethical issues over privacy etc)
37
Explain the difference between participant or non participant Evaluate this
Participant= observations are made by someone who is also a participant Pro=good insight / con=less objective- too involved Non participant= the observer is separate from the people being observed Pro=more objective/ less insight (outsider)
38
What is the difference between event or time sampling
Event sampling involves counting the number of times a behaviour occurs Time sampling= counting the behaviour within a fixed time frame
39
Define content analysis
Analysing qualitative data (turning into quantitative)
40
Evaluate content analysis
Pros:less ethical issues Ecological validity Replication Cons: observer bias
41
Name three measures of central tendency
Mean Median Mode
42
What are descriptive statistics
The use of graphs or tables to summarise data
43
What does standard deviation tell us
How much the scores are spread out from the mean
44
Evaluate standard deviation
Pro=more precise as includes all scores | Con= distorted by a single value
45
What does it mean if there is a: Large standard deviation Small standard deviation
Large= scores deviate a lot from the mean- very spread out-less consistent Small- scores don’t deviate much-less spread out-more consistent
46
When should we use a: - bar chart - scatter graph - histogram
Bar chart=discrete data/clear categories Scatter graph=correlation Histogram=continuous data
47
What does significance mean
A statistical term that indicates the association between two variables is strong enough to accept the ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
48
What is the standard level of significance called
5% significance level (p=0.05)
49
If the results for the statistical test is significant what does this mean
Reject the null hypothesis | Accept the alternative hypothesis
50
If the results of the statistical test are not significant what does this mean
Accept the null hypothesis | Reject the alternative hypothesis
51
What is a type 1 error
FALSE POSITIVE errors which occur when the results are significant but when they actually occurred due to chance More likely to occur the larger the probability level used
52
What is a type 2 error
FALSE NEGATIVE Occurs when results are not significant but they actually were More Likely to occur the smaller the probability used
53
What is a level of measurement
Refers to the data gathered off participants
54
What is nominal data
Data that is in categories and frequencies
55
What measure of central tendency is used for nominal data
Mode
56
What is ordinal data
Scores in rank order | Any numerical score
57
What measure of central tendency is used for ordinal data
Median
58
What is interval data
Data that has intervals between each score | The intervals are equal
59
What measure of central tendency is used for interval data
Mean
60
Why do we use a statistical test
To allow us to make decisions about the result To allow us to decide objectively whether the results are significant or not using standardised tests To allow us to accept or reject the correct hypotheses and make conclusions of inferences from our research
61
Name the test of difference for independent measures for reach type of data
Nominal= chi squared test Ordinal= Mann Whitney U-test Interval=unrelated t-test
62
Name the test of difference for a repeated measures or matched pairs experiment for each type of data
nominal data-Sign test Ordinal data-Wilcoxon sign test Interval data-Related T-test
63
Name the test of relationship for a correlation for each type of data
Nominal- chi-squared test Ordinal-spearman’s RHO correlation Interval- Pearson’s correlation coefficient
64
How can u tell if the results are significant or not
Compare the calculated value with the critical value Then u decide to accept or reject the null and alternative hypothesis
65
Name the tests which are GREATER or equal to the critical value
``` Chi-squared test Unrelated t test Related t test Spearman’s RHO Pearson’s correlation coefficient ```
66
What do u need to know to find the critical value
Level of significance One tailed or two tailed Number of participants
67
What is a one tailed/two tailed test
A one tailed hypothesis is directional | A two tailed test is non directional
68
Define ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exists between participants rights and researchers needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings
69
What are the 4 ethical issues- briefly describe
1) informed consent- participants must be informed clearly about the purpose of the research so can make an informed decision about whether or not to participate 2) deception- not told true aims of the study- cannot make an informed consent 3) protection from harm- participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects 4) privacy and confidentiality- concerns participants personal information being protected
70
How would you deal with: Informed consent Deception
A debrief and right to withdraw
71
How would you deal with protection from harm
Design- researchers to not expose participants to any harm beyond what they might experience in real life Counselling may be provided
72
How would you deal with privacy
Anonymity- participants identified as a number rather than their name
73
Why should we use statistical tests
Allow us to draw conclusions from the results Allow us to decide objectively if the results are significant Allow us to accept or reject the correct hypothesis
74
What are the three different types of statistical test for nominal
Unrelated test of difference- chi-squared test Related test of difference- sign test Test of relationship ( correlation )- chi-squared test
75
What are the different statistical tests for ordinal data
Unrelated test of difference- Mann Whitney u test Related test of difference- wilcoxon sign test Test of relationship- spearmans RHO correlation
76
Describe the different statistical tests for interval data
Unrelated test of difference- unrelated t- test Related test of difference- related T-test Test of relationship (correlation)-pearsons correlation coefficient
77
What does unrelated mean
Independent groups
78
What does related mean
Repeated measures/ mixed pairs
79
What is nominal data and what central tendency is used
Data is in categories and frequencies- mode
80
What is ordinal data and what central tendency
Scores in rank order from a rating scale | Median
81
What is interval data and what type of central tendency is used
Data which has equal intervals between each score- mean
82
To decide whether results are significant, what are we comparing
The CALCULATED VALUE from the statistical test With the CRITICAL VALUE found in the table
83
What must happen for the results to be significant
In stats test with an R in there name only The calculated value must be gReater than the critical value __________________________________________________ However in stats tests that don’t have an R in them The calculate value must be lower than the critical value to be significant
84
What three things must you know to calculate the critical value
1) level of significance 2) once tailed or two tailed 3) number of participants in the study
85
What does one tailed mean
Directional hypothesis
86
What does two tailed mean
Non directional hypothesis
87
define reliability
refers to how consistently it measures what it is supposed to measure
88
name two ways to asses reliability
test-retest reliability | inter-observer reliability
89
define test-retest reliability
the experiment is carried out initially and then again at a later date when the two sets of data are compared, a correlation coefficient of +0.8 demonstrates that the measure has reliability
90
what is the correlation coefficient that shows the measure has reliability using test-retest reliability
+0.8
91
what is inter-observer reliability
the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers
92
when using inter-observer reliability, what is the correlation coefficient for the results to be considered reliable
it should exceed +0.8
93
how would you improve reliability when using test-retest reliability
1) reduce ambiguity of questions such as in a questionnaire | 2) ensure procedures are exactly the same as before
94
how would you improve reliability when using inter-observer reliability
1) make behavioural categories clearer | 2) practise using the behavioural categories
95
define validity
the extent to which something is measuring what its supposed to measure ( accuracy)
96
what are the two types of validity
``` internal validity ( within the study) external validity (after the study) ```
97
what are the four types of validity
1) face validity- seeing if it looks Like it measures what its supposed to measure 2) concurrent validity- comparing a new test with an already well established test 3) ecological validity- the ability to generalise beyond the particular setting 4) temporal validity- ability to generalise research beyond the particular time period of the study
98
how would you improve face validity
revise and improve the questions to relate more obviously to the topic
99
how would you improve concurrent validty
remove irrelevant questions
100
what are the five features of science
``` Theory hypothesis testing empirical methods (direct testing) objectivity replication ```
101
what does falsifiability mean
the possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be disproved
102
define paradigm
an agreement upon a set of assumptions and methods about the subject matter of a discipline
103
define economy
the state of a country in terms of the production
104
what's the purpose of an abstract
provide a short summary of the study- allows reader to see if report is relevant
105
what's the purpose of an introductuon
provides background information on theories and studies relevant to the investigation explains how hypothesis came about described past research
106
whats the purpose of method
provides the specific design details of the study | allows other researchers to replicate the research or potentially improve the method
107
what's the purpose of the results section
include any descriptive statistics or any inferential tests
108
what's there purpose of discussion in a report
- dsicuss finding sin relation to a previous report - implications for human behaviour - outline any limitations - suggest areas for further research
109
what's the purpose of referencing
helps the reader find original source | adds authenticity to the argument

A Level: Psychology (11 decks)

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