Research methods Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
Define aims of an experiment
A
A statement of what the researchers intend to find out in a research study
2
Q
Define debriefing
A
A post research interview designed to to inform participants of the true nature of the study to restore them to the state they were in at the beginning pf the study. May also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedure of the study. It is method of dealing with ethical issues
3
Q
Define ethical issues
A
Questions of whether the study is right or wrong, They arise in research when there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a study
4
Q
Define an experiment
A
A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable
5
Q
Define extraneous variables
A
Variables that do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependant variable.
6
Q
Define hypothesis
A
A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between the variables. Must be operationalised to be testable
7
Q
What is the Independent variable (IV)
A
Something that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable
8
Q
What is the Dependent variable
A
The variable that is effected by the independent variable
9
Q
What is informed consent
A
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether they wish to participate
10
Q
Define what it is to operationalise
A
Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
11
Q
Give an example of opertationalising something
A
The idea of educational attainment needs to be operationalised to something such as GCSE maths grades
12
Q
What are standardised procedures
A
A set of procedures that have to be the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study
13
Q
What is a confederate
A
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator
14
Q
What is a directional hypothesis
A
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants
15
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis
A
Predicts that there will be a difference between two conditions or groups, however doesn’t give a direction
16
Q
What is a pilot study
A
A small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with he view to make an improvement q
17
Q
What is counterbalancing
A
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. It ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts
18
Q
What is experimental design
A
A set of procedures used to control the influence of variable such as participant variables in the design
19
Q
What is independent groups design
A
When participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques
20
Q
What is a matched pairs design
A
Pairs of participants are matched together in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition
21
Q
What is order effect
A
In a repeated measures design, it is an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented
22
Q
Give two examples of order effect
A
Practice effect and fatigue effect
23
Q
What is random allocation
A
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
24
Q
What is a repeated measures design
A
When each participant takes part in every condition under test, i.e. each level of the IV
25
What are the two main ways of counterbalancing
Ab or BA
- participants are split into two groups
- groups one: each participant does A then B
- group two: each participant does B then A
ABBA
- Trial 1: condition A (morning)
- Trial 2: condition B (morning)
- Trial 3: condition B (afternoon)
- Trial 4: condition A (afternoon)
26
What is a field experiment
A controlled experiment conducted outside of a laboratory.
27
What is a laboratory experiment
An experiment carried out in a controlled setting
28
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments
High in internal validity because extraneous variable can be controlled. This means that we can be confident that any change observed in the DV is due to the IV
29
What are the limitations of laboratory experiments
- Participants are usually aware that their behaviour is being monitored. This leads participants to search for cues about he aims of the experiment causing the behaviour to be altered, reducing the realness of the experiment
- The IV or DV may be operationalised in a way that doesn't represent everyday experiences (low in mundane realism)
- Low ecological validity as participants may feel uncomfortable in the artificial environment causing them to behave differently to how they usually would
30
What is the confounding variable
A variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV
31
What is control
Refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher
32
What is external validity
The degree to which research can be generalised
33
What is ecological validity
How far research can be generalised to other settings
34
What is population validity
How far research can be generalised to other groups of people
35
What is historical validity
How far research can be generalised over time
36
What are extraneous variables
Variables that do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable
37
What is internal validity
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding or extraneous varibles
38
What is mundane realism
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world and how the research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world
39
What is a natural experiment
A research method in which the experimenter has not directly manipulated the IV
40
What is a quasi experiment
A research method where the IV is not actually something that varies at all it is just a condition that exists
41
Give an example of a natural experiment
- Effects of institutionalisation
| - Effects of TV
42
Give an example of a quasi experiment
- Gender differences (Sheridan and king, 1972)
| - Locus of control prisoner of war study (Hutchins and Estey, 1978)
43
What are the strengths of natural experiments
- Allows research where the IV can't be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
- Enables psychologists to study real world problems with increased mundane realism and ecological validity
44
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments
- Cannot demonstrate causal relationships because IV not directly manipulated
- Random allocation is not possible so there may be uncontrollable confounding variables
- Can only be used where conditions vary naturally
45
What are the strengths of quasi experiments
- Allows comparisons between types of people
46
What are the weaknesses of quasi experiments
- Participants may be aware that they are being studied, creating demand characteristics and reducing internal validity
- The dependent variable may be a fairly artificial task, reducing mundane realism
47
What are demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously are of the aims of the study or helps them to work out what the researcher expects to find
48
What is the investigator effect (investigator/experimenter bias)
Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended
49
Give what are the two types of investigator effect
Direct effects - a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participant
Indirect effects - a consequence of how the investigator designed the study
50
What variables can the investigator effect act as
Confounding or extraneous variables
51
What is bias
A systematic distortion
52
What is generalisation
Applying the findings of a particular study to the population
53
What is opportunity sample
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
54
What is population
A group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom the sample is taken from. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made
55
What is a random sample
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
56
What is sampling
The method used to select participants
57
What is a stratified sample
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are the selected randomly from the subgroups
58
What is a systematic sample
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person
59
What is volunteer bias
A form of sampling bias because volunteers has particular characteristics
60
What is a volunteer sample
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample
61
What is confidentiality
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected
62
What is deception
When a participant is not told the true aims of a study. (eg. what participation will involve and therefore the participant cannot give informed consent)
63
What is informed consent
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to be able to make an informed decision about whether to participate
64
What is privacy
A person's right to control the flow of information about themelves
65
What is protection from harm
During a research study participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment
66
What is the right to withdraw
Participants can stop participating in the stud if they feel uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases when participants are unable to give informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data produced
67
Who are the ethics committee
A group of people within a research institution that must approve of a study before it begins
68
What are ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
69
What are the strengths of ethical guidelines
The 'rules and sanctions' approach of BPS and APA ethical guidelines have strengths in terms of the clarity it offers
70
What are the limitations of ethical guidlines
- The BPS/APA guidelines are relatively general because of the virtual impossibility of covering every conceivable situation that a researcher may encounter
- The approach tends to close off discussions about what is right and what is wrong because answers are provided
- The guidelines also absolve the individual researcher of any responsibility because the researcher can simply say they followed the guidelines
71
What is cost-benefit analysis
A systematic approach to estimating the positives and negatives of any research
72
What are the limitations of cost-benefit analysis
- It is difficult, if not impossible to predict both the benefits and costs prior to conducting a study
- Diana Baumrind (1959) also argued that that the cost-benefit approach could be used to legitimise unethical practices
73
What is presumptive consent
A method of dealing with a lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participant if they would be willing to take part in the study. If this group of people consents to the procedures it is presumed the participant also would agree.
74
What is a controlled observation
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised b the experimenter
75
What is covert observations
Observing people without their knowledge, when knowing that their behaviour is being observed is likely to alter behaviour
76
What is inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
77
What is naturalistic observation
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the observer does not interfere in anyway, just merely observes the behaviours in question
78
What is non-participant observation
The observer is separate from the people being observed
79
What is observer bias
When the observers' expectations affect what they see or hear, reducing the validity of their observations
80
What is overt observation
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied
81
What is participant observation
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity
82
What are the strengths of observational studies
- High validity: record what people do instead of what they say they do
- Observations may capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour
- Observations are often used as a way of measuring the DV in an experiment and therefore a fundamental method of gathering data
83
What are the weaknesses of observational studies
- Observer bias
| - Only observable behaviour is recorded, therefore missing information about what participants are thinking or feeling
84
What are the strengths of naturalistic and controlled observations
- Naturalistic gives a realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour so is high in ecological validity
- Controlled can focus on particular aspects of the behaviour
85
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic and controlled observations
- In naturalistic there is little control of other variables so changes may not be due to the expected IV
- In a controlled observation the control process comes at the cost of the environment feeling unnatural and therefore a participants behaviour is likely to be less natural
86
What are the strengths of Overt and Covert observations
In covert observations participants are unaware that their behaviour is being monitored so behaviour is more natural
87
What are the weaknesses of Overt and Covert observations
- In overt observations participants are aware that they are being monitored so may affect the naturalness of their behaviour
- In covert there are ethical issues such as the lack of informed consent however it may be possible to seek retrospective consent
88
What are the strengths of participant and non-participant observation
- Participant observation may provide special insights into the behaviour that may otherwise not be gained
- In non-participant observation observers are more likely to be objective because they are not part of the group being observed
89
What are the weaknesses of participant and non-participant observation
- Participant observation is more likely to be overt so will alter participant behaviour
- Non-participant observation is more likely to be covert causing there to be ethical issues
90
What are behavioural categories
Dividing a target behaviour into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours
91
What is event sampling
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a behaviour occurs
92
What is structured observation
When a researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
93
What is time sampling
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time framed
94
What is an interview
A research method or technique that involves face to face interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data
95
What is interviewer bias
The effect of an interviewers expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondent's behaviour
96
What is a questionaire
Data that is collected through the use of written questions
97
What is social desirability bias
A distortion in the way people answer questions - they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light
98
What is a structured interview
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance
99
What is an unstructured interview
When the interview starts with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee's answers guide subsequent questions
100
What are the strengths of using self report techniques
All self report techniques allow access to what people think and feel, to their experiences and attitudes
101
What are the weaknesses of using self report techniques
- People may not supply truthful answers due to social desirability bias
- People sometimes don't know what it is that they think or feel
- The sample of people may lack representativeness so the results can't be generalised
102
What are the strengths of using a questionnaire
- Once designed, they can be distributed to a large number of people quickly and cheaply (allows for a large sample
- Respondents may be more willing to give personal information in a questionnaire than in an interview
103
What are the weaknesses of using a questionnaire
- They are only filled out by people who can read and write so it means the sample is biased
104
What are the strengths of using a structured interview
- It can be easily repeated as the questions are standardised. Therefore the answers of different people can be compared
- They are easier to analyse than an unstructured interview because they are more predictable
105
What are the weaknesses of using a structured interview
- Comparability may be a problem if the same interviewer acts differently on different occasions (low reliability)
- A limitation of both structured and unstructured interviews is that the interviewers expectations may influence the the answers an interviewee gives (interviewer bias)
106
What are the strengths of using an unstructured interview
- More detailed information can be obtained from each respondent because the questions are tailored to the specific interviewee
107
What are the weaknesses of using an unstructured interview
- They require interviewers with more skill because the interviewer has to develop new questions on the spot
- The requirement to have higher skilled interviewers will make the unstructured interview more expensive
- Such in depth questions may be more likely to lack objectivity
108
What are closed questions
Questions that have a predetermined range of responses from which the participants choose one.
109
What type of data do closed questions tend to produce
Quantitative
110
What closed questions can produce qualitative data
True/False
111
What are open questions
Questions that invite respondents to produce their own answers rather than choose one that is provided
112
What type of data do open questions tend to produce
Qualitative
113
What is qualitative data
Non-numerical data
114
What is quantitative data
Data in numbers
115
What are the three guiding principles when writing good questions
- Clarity- Easy for the respondents to understand
- Bias- Any bias in a question could lead the respondent to be more likely to give a certain answer
- Analysis- Questions should be written so that answers will be easy to analyse
116
What are the strengths of using open questions
- Respondents can expand on their answer, which increases the amount amount of detail of information collected
- Open questions can provide unexpected answers, thus allowing researchers to gain new insights into peoples feelings and attitudes
117
What are the weaknesses of using open questions
- Most respondents tend to avoid giving lengthy, complex answers, meaning open questions do not provide extra information
- Open questions produce qualitative data which is difficult to summarise due a there likely being a wide range of responses
118
What are the strengths of using closed questions
- Have a limited range of responses and produce quantitative data data which makes it easy to compare and summarise
119
What are the weaknesses of using closed questions
- Respondents may be forced to select answers that do not represent their true thoughts or behaviours meaning the data will lack validity
- Participants may select 'don't know' or have a preference to the answer yes meaning the data collected isn't informative
120
What is a co-variable
The two measured variables in a correlational analysis. The variables must be continuous
121
What is a continuous variable
A variable that can take on any value within a certain range (rating something on a scale of 1 to 10)
122
What is a correlation
Determining the extent of an association between two variables
123
What is zero correlation
When co-variables are not linked at all
124
What is a positive correlation
When the variables both increases together
125
What is a negative correlation
When one variable increases the other one decreases
126
What is a correlation coefficient
A number between +1 and -1 that tell us how closely the co-variables are related in a correlation analysis
127
What is a curvilinear correlation
A non-linear relationship between co-variables
128
What is an intervening variable
A variable that comes between the two other variables, which is used to explain the association of the two variables
129
What is an example of an intervening variable
For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by the intervening variable being heat
130
What is a linear correlation
A systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line
131
What is a scatter gram
A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores
132
What is significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are significantly strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
133
What are the strengths of using correlations
- If a correlation is significant then it means further investigation is justified. If it is not significant then you can rule out a casual relationship
- Can be easily repeated
134
What are the limitations with using correlations
- Variables are simply measured, no deliberate change is made. Therefore no conclusion can be made about one co-variable causing the other
- People assume casual conclusions
- The supposed casual connection may be due to intervening variables
- May lack internal/external validity
135
What is a case study
A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual institution or event
136
What is the benefit of using a case study
Provide a rich record of human experience
137
What is the issue with using a case study
Hard to generalise from
138
What is content analysis
A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes
139
What is effect size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
140
What is meta-analysis
When a researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies and produces a statistic to represent the overall effect
141
What is a review
A consideration of a number of studies that have investigated the same topic in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis
142
What are the strengths of using content analysis
Content analysis is based on observations of what people actually do (real communications that are current and relevant), therefore giving it high ecological validity
143
What are the weaknesses of using content analysis
Observer bias reduces the objectivity and validity of findings because different observers may interpret the meaning of the behavioural categories differently
144
What are the strengths of using meta-analysis
- High validity as it is based on a wide sample of results
| - Allows us to reach an overall conclusion by having a statistic to represent the findings of different studies
145
What are the weaknesses of using meta-analysis
The research designs of different studies may vary considerably meaning that the studies are not really comparable meaning the conclusions are not always valid
146
What is the order of magnitude
A means of expressing a number by focussing on the overall size (magnitude). This is done by expressing the number in terms of the powers of 10
147
What is a significant figure
Refers to the number of important single digits used to represent a number.
148
What is standard form
A means of expressing a very large or very small number. It is shown as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by 10 to the power of a number
149
What is the mean
The arithmetic average of a data set
150
What is a measure of central tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a 'typical' value for a data set
151
What is a measure of dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data is
152
What is the median
The middle value of a data set where the items are placed in rank order
153
What is the mode
The most frequently occurring value or item in a data set
154
What is the range
The difference between the highest and lowest value in a data set
155
What is standard deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set assessing the spread of data around the mean
156
What are the strengths of using the mean
It is the most sensitive measure of central tendency because it takes into account the exact distance between all of the data sets
157
What are the weaknesses of using the mean
- The high sensitivity means that it can easily be distorted by outliers making it misrepresentative of the data set
- It cannot be used with nominal data
- It does not make sense to use it when using discrete values
158
What are the strengths of using the median
- It is not affected by extreme scores
- It is appropriate for ordinal (ranked) data
- It can be easier to calculate than the mean
159
What are the limitations of using the median
- It is not as sensitive as the mean as all of the exact values are not reflected in the calculation
160
What are the strengths of using the mode
- Unaffected by extreme values
- It is much more useful for discrete data
- It is the only method that can be used when the data are in categories
161
What are the limitations of using the mode
- It is not a useful way of describing data when there are several modes
- Tells us nothing about the other values in a distribution
162
What are the strengths of using the range
Very easy to calculate
163
What are the limitations with using the range
- It is affected by extreme values
| - Doesn't account for the distribution of the numbers (where the numbers are most grouped up)
164
What are the strengths of using standard deviation
- A precise measurement of the dispersion because it takes all the exact values into account
- Easy to calculate with a calculator
165
What are the limitations with using standard deviation
It may hide some of the characteristics of the data set
166
What is a bar graph
A graph used to represent the frequency of data
167
What is a histogram
A type of frequency distribution in which the number of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns
168
What is negative skewed distribution
When most of the scores are bunched towards the right
