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Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Aims

A

Developed from theories, general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

Clear testable statement that states the relationship between the variables and predict the outcome of a study before it starts

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3
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

Identifies direction of difference between two conditions

Directional

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4
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

States a difference between conditions but the nature of the difference is not made clear

Used when there is no prior evidence or results are contradictory

Non-directional

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5
Q

IV

A

Independent variable, variable that experimenter manipulates, or naturally changes so effect on DV can be measured

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6
Q

DV

A

Dependent variable, variable measured against the IV

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7
Q

Operationalisation

A

Variables being manipulated should be clearly defined and measurable

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8
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Variables that do not vary systematically with the IV, can often be controlled before experiment starts

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9
Q

Confounding variable

A

Variables that do vary systematically with IV, can’t be sure what is effecting DV

Essentially extraneous variables the experimenter failed to control for

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10
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Participants interpret cues from the experimenter (investigator effects) and research situation. They may change their behaviour as a result

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11
Q

Randomisation

A

The use of chance to reduce researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation

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12
Q

Standardisation

A

Making sure all ppts are subject to the same standardised instructions and experience

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13
Q

Random allocation

A

Attempt to evenly distribute ppt difference across experimental conditions in independent group designes

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14
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Attempt to control for order effects in repeated measures experiment, half the group experiences conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order

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15
Q

Experimental design

A

The different ways in which the testing of ppts can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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16
Q

Experiment

A

Where a change in IV effects the DV and results are measured/recorded

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17
Q

Types of experiment
Lab experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Takes place within controlled environment, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV. High control of extraneous variables

+ve High contol means study can be replicated without introducing more extraneous variables

-ve Low mundane realism, tasks carried out by ppts in lab exp may not represent real life

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18
Q

Types of experiment
Field experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Takes place in natural setting, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV

+ve Higher mundane realism than lab exp

-ve Ethical issue, ppts aware not be away they are being studied, no informed concent + invasion of privacy

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19
Q

Types of experiment
Natural experiments
+ve and -ve

A

IV changes without researcher’s influence, DV is simply recorded

+ve High external validity, involves study of real life issues as they happen - eg natural disaster on stress levels

-ve The situation may be rare in occurrence, limits ability to generalise results to other situations

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20
Q

Types of experiment
Quasi experiments
+ve and -ve

A

Iv is not manipulated but is based on existing differences between ppts, such as age

+ve Carried out under controlled conditions similar to lab exp

-ve Random allocation is not possible, may be confounding variables

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21
Q

Random sample

+ve and -ve

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

+ve free from researcher bias, researcher has no influence over who is selected, prevents them picking those who would support hypothesis

-ve more likely to produce sample that is not representative, Eg 20 females from ldn and 1 boy

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22
Q

Systematic sample

+ve

A

Every nth person is chosen from a list.

+ve Avoids researcher bias
+ve Provides representative data

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23
Q

Stratified sample

+ve and -ve

A

The proportions of people in population sub-groups (strata) are reflected in the sample.

+ve Made to accurately reflect groups within population, highly representative sample makes generalising results possible

-ve odentified strata can not reflect all the ways people are different, cant be perfectly representative

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24
Q

Opportunity sample

+ve and -ve

A

Whoever is available at the time of sampling will be included.

+ve Convenient as saves researcher time and effort less costly than random sampling eg

  • ve Results cant be generalised to whole pop as sample is drawn from one place eg street
  • ve Researcher has control over selection of participants, researcher bias as they wont select people they dont like the look of
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25
Volunteer sample | +ve and -ve
Ppts self select through an ad eg +ve Easy to obtain sample, minimal effort required from researcher, time efficient -ve Volunteer bias is a problem - may attract certain type of people eg helpful, curious. Restricts how far results can be generalised
26
Define ethical issue
When a conflict arises between the rights and dignity of a ppt and the needs of the researcher to produce valid/worthwile data beneficial to society
27
Ethical issue + solution | Informed consent
Ppts should be made aware of the aims, procedures and their right to withdraw before agreeing to take part If informed consent cant be obtained: - get prior general, retrospective or presumptive consent
28
Presumptive consent
Similar group to research group is asked for consent, if they agree, research group's consent is presumed
29
Prior general consent
Ppts are shown a list of studies to consent to, one which involves deception, by agreeing they are essentially agreeing to be deceived
30
Retrospective consent
Ppts are asked for consent during debriefing, once they have already taken part in study
31
Ethical issue + solution | Deception
Ppts should not deliberately be misled, some deception is acceptable -full debrief is required at the end
32
Ethical issue + solution | Confidentiality
Participants' anonymity and privacy must be respected -names should not be recorded
33
Ethical issue + solution | Protection form harm
Participants should not be exposed to any more risk than they would be in everyday life. -participants should be offered counselling as part of the debrief
34
Pilot study
Small scale version of the experiment/questionnaire/observation and will usually involve a small sample size Allows researcher to identify issues in exp design, saving them time and money in large scale study
35
Single blind preocedure
Ppts are not made aware some of the details of the investigation, like what condition they are in to reduce demand characteristics Attempts to control confounding effects of demand characteristics
36
Double blind procedure
The ppt nor the person conducting the study is made aware of the aim, to reduce demand characteristics + investigator effects
37
Controlled observation | +ve and -ve
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, some variables are manipulated +ve Extraneous variables become less of a factor, replication of study becomes more possible -ve Findings may not apply to everyday life, not generalisable to daily life
38
Covert Observation | +ve and -ve
Covert: behaviour observed without awareness/consent of ppt +ve Low ppt reactivity, less chance of demand characteristics -ve Ethically questionable as no consent for observation has been given
39
Participant Observation
Researcher may choose to take part in the observation with ppts, increases objectiveness
40
Observational design | Structured observation
Only records behaviour in reference to pre-set behaviour list, can lead to key behaviours being missed/ignored
41
Observational design | Un-structured observation
Observer records everything they see, this often can lead to too much data to record
42
Effective behaviour categories for observations
Behavioural categories should be measurable, not overlap and avoid 'dustbin categories' within which many behaviours are recorded
43
Observational design | Event/time sampling
Event: how often a behaviour occurs - Useful for infrequent behaviour Time: how often behaviour occurs within pre-established time - May not represent whole behaviours
44
Kinds of data Qualitative +ve and -ve
Non-numerical description of ppt's thoughts and feelings +ve Rich in detail, high external validity -ve Hard to analyse, conclusions may be too subjective
45
Self-report techniques | Questionnaires
Pre-set questions used to record thoughts and feelings towards a matter
46
Self-report techniques | Open/closed questions
Open: no fixed range of answers, more detailed Closed: Fixed range of answers, lacks detail
47
Self-report technique | Structured interviews
Structured interview involves pre-set questions asked in a fixed order Similar to questionnaires, but fewer respondents
48
Self-report technique | Semi-structured interview
Some pre-set questions but follow up questions are allowed
49
What should a questionnaire/interview not have
Questions should not include too much jargon, be leading or use emotive language, be double-barrelled or include double-negatives
50
Types of closed questions
Likert scale Rating scale Fixed choice option
51
Participant extraneous variables | Situational extraneous variables
Ppt variables: Age, gender, personality Situation variables: Lighting, background noise, time of day
52
Types of design Independent groups +ve and -ve
Two separate groups do two separate conditions in the experiment +ve order effects are not a problem, ppts less likely to guess the aim -ve Ppts in different groups are not the same, personality variables makes it unclear if the IV is the only thing affecting the DV To control for this use random allocation
53
Types of design Repeated measures +ve and -ve
All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment +ve Ppt variables are controlled for, this is also economically beneficial as less ppts are needed (less pay) -ve Order affects may cause ppts to feel bored or fatigued by second task, this could affect performance
54
Types of design Matched pairs +ve and -ve
Ppts are matched on a variable relevant to the experiment, pair is then split up, one in each group +ve All ppts take part in one condiion, order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem -ve Matching may be time consuming and expensive, more so if pre-tests are required
55
Sampling techniques
Methods used to select people from the population
56
Generalisation
Extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population, high generalisability when sample is representative of population
57
Naturalistic observation | +ve and -ve
Observing and recording behaviour in the setting within it would naturally occur, all aspects of the environment are free to vary +ve High external validity, behaviour occurs naturally, results can be generalised to day-day life. -ve Lack of control over research situation makes replication harder
58
Investigator effects
The unconscious influence of the researcher on the research situation
59
Non-participant observation
observer may remain separate from the group, increases objectivity
60
Overt observation | +ve and -ve
Observing ppts with their knowledge +ve Ethically acceptable, informed consent has been given -ve Could lead to demand characteristics, behaviour and therefor results are affected
61
Self-report technique | Un-structured interviews
General topic questions developed based on responses More flexibility
62
self-report design | Questionnaires
Likert scales, ranking scales, fixed choice option
63
Kinds of data quantitative +ve and -ve
Data expressed numerically +ve Easy to analyse, less bias -ve Narrow in scope may miss out lots of detail
64
Kinds of data Primary +ve and -ve
Collected first hand from the ppts by researcher for purpose of investigation +ve High validity, targets relevant information -ve Requires time and effort
65
Kinds of data Secondary +ve and -ve
Collected and analysed by someone other that researcher who conducted experiment +ve Inexpensive, easy to access data -ve May be outdated and incomplete
66
Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency Mean +ve and -ve
All them all up, divide by number of categories/groups +ve Most sensitive and representative of all results -ve Easily distorted by anomalies
67
Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency Median +ve and -ve
The middle value +ve Not affected by extreme values -ve Less sensitive than the mean
68
Descriptive stats - Measures of central tendency Mode +ve and -ve
Most frequently occurring result +ve Easily to calculate -ve Unrepresentative of all data
69
Descriptive stats - Measures of dispersion Range +ve and -ve
Minus lowest value from highest (add one if they ask to account for numerical inaccuracies) +ve Easy to calculate -ve May be unrepresentative of data set
70
Define generalisability
The extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population
71
Correlations
Mathematical technique where a researcher investigates an association between two variables – called co-variables
72
Correlation coeffecient
 Number between –1 - +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between two co-variables
73
Descriptive statistics
Things such as graphs, tables and summary statistics (measures of central tendency and dispersion). Used to identify trends and analyse sets of data
74
Inferential statistics
Refers to the use of statistical tests
75
Case studies
An in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, small group or institution
76
Content analysis
 Research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce through various media, for instance TV, emails and texts
77
Reliability
Refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are
78
Test-retest
Method of assessing reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions
79
Inter-oberserver reliability
 Extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
80
Validity
Extent to which an observed effect is genuine does u measure what it was supposed to measure (internal) and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found (external)
81
Ecological validity
Extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other settings and situations
82
Temporal validity
Extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to different periods in time and eras
83
Face validity
 Basic form of validity where the measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is it supposed to
84
Concurrent validity
 Extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
85
Probability
Measure of the likelihood of a particular event occurring. 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 indicates statistical certainty
86
Significance
Statistical term that tells us how sure we are of a difference or correlation existing. A significant result means the researcher can reject the null hypothesis
87
Calculated value
 A number resulting from calculating a statistical test
88
Critical value
The numerical boundary between acceptance and rejection of a null hypothesis
89
Paradigm
 Set of shared assumptions and agreed methods. Within a scientific discipline
90
Paragdim shift
Significant change in the dominant underlying theory within a scientific discipline
91
Theory
 Set of general laws or principals that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
92
Falsafiability
A principal stating a theory can not be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of it being proven false
93
Replicability
 Extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
94
Objectivity
 When all sources of personal bias are minimised to avoid distorting/influencing the research process
95
Emperical method
 Scientific approached that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
96
Calculated value is ≥ critical value
- Chi squared − Spearman's rho − Pearson's R We accept alternative, reject null hypothesis
97
Calculated value is ≤ critical value
- Sign test − Mann Whiteney - Wilcoxon We accept alternative, reject null hypothesis

Psychology (5 decks)

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