Research Methods

Question 1

What is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 1

A laboratory experiment is a type of experiment carried out in artificial controlled conditions, usually in a lab.

The IV is changed to see the effect on a DV with every other possible variable controlled to see a clear cause and effect.

Question 2

What are the disadvantages and advantages of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 2

Advantages:

Highly controlled environment allows for a clear cause and effect to be established as confounding variables are removed

Since the experiment is strictly controlled, it is usually more reliable than other experiments

Disadvantages:

Low ecological validity - laboratory experiments are done in artificial conditions and so this cannot be representative of the general population.

Demand characteristics can occur often in laboratory experiments as it’s hard to get someone into an artificial, controlled setting without them even knowing they’re in a study.

Question 3

What is a Field experiment?

Answer 3

A field experiment is an experiment similar to a laboratory experiment, but done in a natural, less controlled setting.

A field experiment aims to manipulate the IV to find the DV, but in a less controlled setting. These are usually done outside in a natural setting.

Question 4

What are the disadvantages and advantages of a Field experiment?

Answer 4

Advantages:

Much easier to observe participants without knowing they’re in a study as they are in their normal, natural environment, therefore reducing the chance of demand characteristics.

Ecologically valid, as participants are in a natural setting and so field experiments are often more ecologically valid.

Disadvantages:

Field experiments often risk confounding variables because the environment used is not controlled. Due to this, it can be hard to establish clear cause and effect between 2 variables.

Question 5

What is a Natural experiment?

Answer 5

A natural experiment is an experiment similar to a field experiment, however the IV is not able to get manipulated by the researchers because they physically can’t.

Researchers wait for the IV to happen to see the effect on the DV.

An example of an IV that can’t be manipulated is a natural disaster - you cannot manipulate it to happen at a certain point.

Question 6

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Natural experiment?

Answer 6

Advantages:

Compared to a laboratory experiment, it is much easier to study people without knowing they’re in an experiment as this experiment is usually done in a natural setting.
As a result, demand characteristics is less likely.

Ethical - Some things are unethical to be manipulating but with a natural experiment you don’t manipulate anything at all, therefore you’re not being a disturbance.

Ecological validity is extremely high in Natural experiments as the environment they are used in are usually not artificial and so are more representative to the real world.

Disadvantages:

Cause and effect is much harder to establish because you cannot control anything, not even the IV - this means that you are much more likely to run into confounding variables you can’t fix.
As a result, natural experiments aren’t very reliable.

IV can’t be manipulated so researchers have to literally wait for the IV to happen naturally. This can take a while.

Question 7

What is a Quasi experiment?

Answer 7

A quasi experiment is similar to a laboratory experiment, as it is done in controlled conditions to establish a casual relationship. However:

In a quasi experiment, the researcher is not able to use random allocation to put participants in different conditions.

This is usually because the independent variable is a particular feature of the participant, such as gender or the existence of a mental disorder.

Question 8

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Quasi experiment?

Answer 8

Advantages:

Quasi experiments are often done in controlled conditions. This means that cause and effect is easily established.
This also means that the study is more reliable as confounding variables are eliminated.

Disadvantages:

Depending on the IV, Quasi experiments can be potentially ecologically invalid.
For example, if your IV is a mental illness, people may act much differently in an artificial environment, making cause and effect much less representative of the population with the same illness.

Cause and effect is harder to establish as you cannot directly manipulate the IV to your best interests.

You are not able to randomly allocate participants to each condition in an experiment.
This is because you are looking for certain unique participants, and to get a proper sample you may need to look outside your target population.
As a result of this, confounding variables may occur between the participants as the location at where the participant was raised would vary.
The way you are raised might cause confounding variables when trying to conclude cause and effect within the participants, therefore making quasi experiments less representative.

Question 9

What is a Research Aim?

Answer 9

A general statement about what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.

Question 10

Dave, a middle-aged male researcher, approached an adult in a busy street. He asked the adult for directions to the train station. He repeated this with 29 other adults.

Each of the 30 adults were then approached by a second researcher, called Sam, who showed each of them 10 photographs of different middle-aged men, including a photograph of Dave.

Sam asked the 30 adults to choose the photograph of the person who had asked them for directions to the train station.

Sam estimated the age of each of the 30 adults and recorded whether each one had correctly chosen the photograph of Dave. ​

Identify one aim of this experiment.

Answer 10

The aim of the experiment was to:

Observe the effect that age has on the ability to identify a person previously seen from a photo line up.

Question 11

It is thought that colors might affect our performance when carrying out certain tasks.

Research in this area has been inconclusive. Some studies have shown that red improves performance but others have found the opposite. It could be that these contradictory results have arisen because red is beneficial only for certain kinds of mental processing.

Some psychologists tested this hypothesis in a series of independent-groups design experiments using students at a Canadian university.

The experiments involved computer tasks, with either a red, blue or neutral background appearing on the monitor. The researchers found that participants were better at a word-recall task and a spell-checking task when the screen background was red rather than blue or neutral.

However, participants thought of more creative ideas when the screen was blue rather than red or neutral. The researchers concluded that red is beneficial for tasks that require attention to detail whereas blue aids creativity. ​

What were the researchers’ aims in this study?

Answer 11

The research aim in this study is to investigate the effect background color has on performance and creativity, projecting spell-checking and word-recall tasks onto a computer with a background that was either blue, neutral or red.

The researchers wanted to see how correct and creative the groups would be with the tasks given relating to the color background presented to them.

Question 12

What is an Independent Variable (IV)?

Answer 12

The Independent Variable is the variable in the experiment that you directly change in order to see the effect on the Dependent Variable.

Question 13

What is a Dependent Variable (DV)?

Answer 13

The Dependent Variable is the variable in the experiment that researchers are looking to measure, relating to the impact the Independent Variable has on it directly.

For example, the Independent Variable might be the type of pondweed used in water, and the Dependent Variable would be the rate of photosynthesis.

Question 14

What does it mean to Operationalize something?

Answer 14

Operationalization is a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon that is not directly measurable.

Question 15

Which one is Operationalized, and which one isn’t?

1 - Number of words accurately recalled
2 - Resources selected
3 - Punishment given
4 - Reaction time in seconds
5 - Intelligence level
6 - Number of faces accurately recognized

Answer 15

1 - Operationalized
2 - Not Operationalized
3 - Not Operationalized
4 - Operationalized
5 - Not Operationalized
6 - Operationalized

Question 16

Identify and operationalize the IV and the DV in the following hypotheses:​

Male participants will throw a rugby ball further than female participants.​

Answer 16

IV = Male or Female
DV = Distance the rugby ball is thrown in meters

Question 17

Identify and operationalize the IV and the DV in the following hypotheses:​

Females with an eating disorder will score lower on a self-esteem questionnaire compared to females who do not have an eating disorder.​

Answer 17

IV = Eating Disorder diagnosis or no Eating Disorder diagnosis

DV = Number of points scored on questionnaire

Question 18

Identify and operationalize the IV and the DV in the following hypotheses:​

Participants will move more counters when completing a counter moving task on their own compared to when observed by an audience.​

Answer 18

IV = Observing audience or no observing audience
DV = Amount of counters moved by the participant

Question 19

A psychologist used an independent groups design to investigate whether or not a cognitive interview was more effective than a standard interview, in recalling information.

For this experiment, participants were recruited from an advertisement placed in a local paper. The advertisement informed the participants that they would be watching a film of a violent crime and that they would be interviewed about the content by a male police officer.

The psychologist compared the mean number of items recalled in the cognitive interview with the mean number recalled in the standard interview.

Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in this experiment.

Answer 19

Independent Variable = Cognitive interview or standard interview

Dependent variable = Mean number of items recalled from the film of a violent crime

Question 20

Identify the IV and DV for the following hypothesis:​

Older people play more hours of video games in a week than younger people.​

Answer 20

IV = Older or younger people

DV = Hours of video games played

Question 21

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 21

A hypothesis is a statement made by the researcher of an experiment reflecting what they believe as true.

Question 22

What’s a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 22

A non-directional hypothesis simply states that there will be a difference between the two groups/conditions but does not say which will be greater/smaller, quicker/slower etc.

Question 23

What’s a directional hypothesis?

Answer 23

A directional hypothesis is made by the researcher predicting a difference between two different groups in the experiment and stating what the difference will be between them.

For example, students who use a revision guide in a test will score higher marks on the test than students who don’t.

Question 24

Independent Variables must feature two conditions.

List two conditions of an IV related to how often students use revision guides.
DV = Marks gained in test

State a directional and non-directional hypothesis from these conditions.

Answer 24

IV conditions:

Never
Always

Directional:

Students who always use revision guides will gain more marks on a test than students that never use it.

Non-directional:

There will be a difference in the marks gained on a test between students who always use a revision guide and students that never use them.

Question 25

Write a non-directional hypothesis for the following research questions. 1 - Does the time of day effect performance on a word recall task?

Answer 25

1 - There will be a difference in the correct answers gained in a word recall task depending on if it's 1:00 AM or 1:00 PM.

Question 26

A Psychology student carried out a laboratory experiment to investigate encoding in STM. She used an opportunity sample of 20 participants. Two lists of letters were read out to participants. List 1: P V E D B C G T (letters that sound the same). List 2: Y Z O A N F X R (letters that do not sound the same). All 20 participants listened to list 1 and then tried to recall the letters. Next, they all listened to list 2 and then tried to recall these letters. Write a non-directional hypothesis for this experiment.

Answer 26

There will be a difference in the ability to recall letters between list 1 and list 2.

Question 27

What's an extraneous variable?

Answer 27

Extraneous variables are variables in research which can manipulate the DV of the experiment but are not the IV. In a normal experiment, EVs must be controlled in order to establish cause and effect between the IV and DV without interference from the EV causing the result.

Question 28

What happens if extraneous variables are not controlled?

Answer 28

If extraneous variables are not controlled, the internal validity of the research will be damaged. They become confounding variables. Extraneous variables can confound the results of the DV not related to the IV and so you cannot establish cause and effect, making the experiment much less reliable.

Question 29

What are confounding variables?

Answer 29

Confounding variables are variables not related to the IV which have affected the results of the DV as they have not been controlled by the researcher. Due to this, you cannot say the IV causes the DV because it could be the CV.

Question 30

List two types of extraneous variables.

Answer 30

Participant variables Situational variables Investigator effects

Question 31

What is a participant variable?

Answer 31

A participant variable is something about the participant that could affect the DV other than the IV.

Question 32

What is a situational variable?

Answer 32

Anything to do with the environment the study was conducted in which can affect the DV other than the IV.

Question 33

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

Answer 33

The Hawthorne Effect is a participant variable. It refers to when a participant is affected by an awareness that they are being observed.

Question 34

What is Social Desirability Bias?

Answer 34

Social Desirability Bias is a participant variable. It refers to when a participant feels influenced to act a certain way to keep into social norms.

Question 35

What are Investigator Effects?

Answer 35

Investigator Effects refers to when conducting research, researchers may be influenced to bias the final outcome of the study in a number of ways. This usually happens unconsciously, but sometimes, investigators may do it on purpose.

Question 36

What is Expectancy Bias?

Answer 36

Expectancy Bias is an Investigator Effect. Expectancy Bias refers to when an Investigator is influenced to bias the final outcome of a study due to what they are expected to find.

Question 37

What is Demand Characteristics?

Answer 37

The term 'Demand Characteristics' refers to when participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and subconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.

Question 38

This diagram represents the three different stages at which investigators look at, from the initial sample of people they wish to draw from to the final group. List A to B: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/809168146036424775/unknown.png?width=616&height=563

Answer 38

``` A = Population B = Target Population C = Sample ```

Question 39

What is Random Sampling?

Answer 39

Random sampling is a type of sampling where each individual in a target population has an equal chance of getting chosen.

Question 40

What is Systematic Sampling?

Answer 40

Systematic Sampling is when every nth name from a sampling frame (a record of all names in a population) is taken. For example, every 3rd name from a school register.

Question 41

What is Stratified Sampling?

Answer 41

The population is divided into sub-groups relevant to the study. The Number (%) of participants selected in the study represent the proportions found in the population.

Question 42

What is Opportunity Sampling?

Answer 42

Opportunity sampling is when the researcher samples whoever is available and willing to be studied. Since many researchers work in universities, they often use opportunity samples made up of students.

Question 43

What is Volunteer Sampling?

Answer 43

Volunteer sampling is a type of sampling where individuals picked for the research experiment put themselves forward to be a participant. For example, if you want people into your experiment so you advertise it, people come forward that want to be part of it - volunteer sampling.

Question 44

What type of sampling technique is: To print out all of the school registers; cut them up so that each name is on a separate piece of paper; then put them all in a huge hat and pick out names with his eyes closed.

Answer 44

Random

Question 45

Give an advantage and disadvantage of random sampling.

Answer 45

Advantage: Random sampling is often representative of the population as every single person in the population has a chance to be picked. It is free from researcher bias as random sampling does not get affected at all by what the researcher does. Disadvantages: Random sampling can often be laborious and so it can take a while to generate your sample.

Question 46

What type of sampling technique is: To print out all of the school registers and select every 5th name until he has selected 50 students.

Answer 46

Systematic

Question 47

Give an advantage and disadvantage of Systematic sampling.

Answer 47

Advantages: Systematic sampling is often a very easy and efficient way to gather participants randomly. Systematic sampling is mostly free from investigator bias. Disadvantages: Systematic sampling does not mean every person in the population has an equal chance of being picked. This can mean you can miss certain sub-groups in the population that might impact your study. This can damage how representative the study is to the population.

Question 48

What type of sampling technique is: To prints out all the names on the school register and divide them into sub-groups, e.g. Sex and year group ​ Then pick at random from these sub-groups.

Answer 48

Stratified

Question 49

Give the disadvantages and advantages of Stratified sampling.

Answer 49

Advantages: Often representative of the general population to a more accurate degree than the other sampling techniques as you get a more representative sample. Avoids researcher bias as you pick from random. Disadvantages: Some subgroups may be missed. It can take a lot of time and money to do it as well, since it also uses the random aspect to sample. It can be difficult to identify certain traits and characteristics, such as people's backgrounds effectively enough to stratify samples properly.

Question 50

What type of sampling technique is: To go into the dinner hall and common room at lunch and ask some students if they want to take part in the research.

Answer 50

Opportunity

Question 51

Give an advantage and disadvantage of Opportunity sampling.

Answer 51

Advantages: Quick and easy, cheap way to get participants Disadvantages: Investigator bias can often happen as you subconsciously influence yourself to go to certain people to ask if they want to be in the study. Since you are only asking certain people (for example those who are actually not at home that you can ask), subgroups can be missed which can make your sample less representative.

Question 52

What sampling technique is: To create posters and put them up around the school, anyone that is interested can take part (e.g. meet after school Tuesday).

Answer 52

Volunteer

Question 53

Give a disadvantage and advantage of Volunteer sampling.

Answer 53

Advantages: Easy and quick way to get participants, requires minimal effort from yourself as people go to you Disadvantages: Certain types of people are much more likely to respond to an advertisement for a study. Due to this, the sample can often be unrepresentative of the general population as those types of people are probably going to act differently than the general population.

Question 54

Researchers wished to study the link between early attachment and later adult relationships. They surveyed a stratified sample of 100 18 year old students from four different schools. Some schools have a large number of students and others have a smaller number of students. Explain how the researchers could have obtained a stratified sample from the four different schools (4 marks)​

Answer 54

The researcher could work out the ratio of sub-groups of students in each of the four schools and calculate the proportions they require. They would then select a random sample from each sub-group by putting names into a hat and picking out the proportional number required for their sample.​

Question 55

What is Quantitative data?

Answer 55

Quantitative data is a piece of data that is numerical. For example, the amount of times a child picks up a pen (e.g. 5 times) is a piece of quantitative data.

Question 56

What is Qualitative data?

Answer 56

Qualitative data is a piece of data which is not numerical. For example, hair color (e.g. brown) is a piece of qualitative data.

Question 57

What is Primary data?

Answer 57

Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources through interviews, surveys, experiments, etc.

Question 58

What is Secondary data?

Answer 58

Secondary data is information collected from other studies or sources, like a book, article or journal.

Question 59

What is a Meta-Analysis?

Answer 59

Meta-analysis is the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies. This is done by investigators to compare the results of each study done and come up with a conclusion as a result of all of them.

Question 60

What is Order Effects?

Answer 60

Order effects refer to the order of the conditions having an effect on the participants' behavior. Performance in a second condition may be better because the participants know what to expect (i.e. practice effect). Their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect).

Question 61

What is a Repeated Measures design?

Answer 61

A Repeated Measures Design is an experimental design where participants take part in both conditions featured in the experiment.

Question 62

Give an advantage and disadvantage for Repeated Measures design.

Answer 62

Advantage: Less participants needed, this means it can be easier to manage and is cheaper. Disadvantage: Since participants are in both conditions, they are subject to issues such as order effects, a situation where a participant gets better at doing a certain or similar task when they do it the second time over.

Question 63

What is Independent Measures design?

Answer 63

An Independent Measures design is an experimental design where a group of participants only participate in one condition in the experiment.

Question 64

Give an advantage and disadvantage for Independent Measures design.

Answer 64

Advantages: Order effects are overcome because participants only participate in one condition, therefore they are typically only needed for one attempt Disadvantages: Requires more participants to keep the sample representative of the general population compared to a Repeated Measures design. Individual differences between participants can cause confounding results, as they won't play a part in the whole experiment, only a single condition.

Question 65

What is a Matched Pairs design?

Answer 65

A matched pairs design is an experimental design where participants only take part in one condition in the experiment, but are matched by certain variables.

Question 66

Give an advantage and disadvantage of Matched Pairs design.

Answer 66

Advantage: No order effects as participants take part in only one condition in the experiment therefore only one attempt is needed The experimental design acknowledges individual differences between participants and matches participants similarly. This means the results are more likely to be reliable as participant effects have been minimized. Disadvantage: It is unlikely this design will be effective to be worth it unless participants are matched on multiple variables. This can take a while. People are different to each other in some unscientific ways, like IQ, memory, childhood and cognitive function (way of thinking). Investigators will often ignore these differences as it is considerably difficult to match people scientifically on behalf of those characteristics, and since they are part of how we define ourselves, a matched pairs design often fails from being too difficult to be fully effective.

Question 67

Match the type of experimental design to the definition:​​ A- Participants only take part in one condition of the IV, but they are matched with another Participant on key characteristics who takes part in the other condition of the IV.​ B- Participants take part in all conditions, often used for comparison studies. ​ C- Participants are placed in separate groups, each group does one level of the IV.

Answer 67

``` A = Matched Pairs Design B = Repeated Measures Design C = Independent Measures Design ```

Question 68

What is an observation?

Answer 68

An observation is a type of research method in which researchers observe the person of interest to record information about them. It is usually carried out in a natural environment.

Question 69

Give a disadvantage and advantage of carrying out an observation.

Answer 69

Advantages: No demand characteristics as you usually observe people without them knowing, making the behavior demonstrated by the individual more natural. Ecologically valid - person usually doesn't know they're in a study and it's done in a natural environment, usually. Disadvantages: Unethical - if participant did not consent to be observed it can be distressing to know you're being watched without being asked. The notes you may take on the individual you are observing are likely to be shallow as there is not much you can say unless you interact with them.

Question 70

Why might psychologists choose to conduct an observation?

Answer 70

To observe people in their natural setting - this allows the gathering of representative and ecologically valid information. Behaviors can be studied in an observation where otherwise it would be unethical to manipulate in an experiment.

Question 71

What is a Controlled Observation?

Answer 71

A Controlled Observation is an observation where the investigator regulates some variables of the environment they are observing in, to make the observation more controlled.

Question 72

What is a Natural Observation?

Answer 72

A Natural Observation is an observation where the investigator observes the participant in it's fully natural environment - the environment is not manipulated or changed in any way.

Question 73

What is a Covert Observation?

Answer 73

A Covert Observation is an observation wherein participants are unaware that they are being observed.

Question 74

What is an Overt Observation?

Answer 74

An Overt Observation is an observation wherein participants are aware that they are being observed.

Question 75

What is a Participant Observation?

Answer 75

A participant observation is an observation where the observer also participates in the activity being observed.

Question 76

What is a Non-Participant Observation?

Answer 76

A Non-Participant Observation is an observation where the observer does not participate in the activity being observed. The observer is separate and keeps away from the people being studied - they simply watch/listen.

Question 77

Give a disadvantage and advantage of a Controlled Observation.

Answer 77

Advantages: Since the environment is controlled, there is a lower chance of confounding variables occurring which makes the observation more reliable, and cause and effect is easier established. Disadvantages: Controlling an environment meaning you are artificially manipulating the environment, meaning the environment is not as naturalistic anymore. This can reflect the participant, who might act differently to the change in the environment, making the observation less ecologically valid.

Question 78

Give a disadvantage and advantage of a Naturalistic Observation.

Answer 78

Advantages: Ecologically valid as the environment that is being observed is fully natural and reflects the participant's natural behavior fully. Disadvantages: Confounding variables can occur often due to the fact that the environment is not controlled, meaning cause and effect is much harder to establish in naturalistic observations, making the observation unreliable.

Question 79

Give a disadvantage and advantage of Covert observations.

Answer 79

Advantages: It is much less likely for the participant being observed to realize they're in an observation, making demand characteristics unlikely. Disadvantages: Highly unethical. People can often feel distressed realizing people have been watching them without their consent which can make people feel unsafe.

Question 80

Give a disadvantage and advantage of Overt observations.

Answer 80

Advantages: Ethical - people have consented to be watched in their own environment. Disadvantages: It is much more likely for the participant being observed to develop demand characteristics, making the behavior unnatural and less representative to the general population.

Question 81

Give a disadvantage and advantage of Participant observations.

Answer 81

Advantages: More in depth information can be formed by being part of the observation as you can directly interact with people you are observing and ask specific questions. Disadvantages: Demand characteristics are much more likely to develop, and so observers must be careful with the types of questions they ask the participant if they wish to ask them anything. Social desirability bias can occur, especially if the participant was alone before you came, to act socially acceptable. This might mask their natural behavior and so make the observation less representative. Investigator effects are more likely as you may develop a connection with the person you are observing while you interact with them which may affect how you evaluate them after your observation ends.

Question 82

Give a disadvantage and advantage of a Non-Participant observation.

Answer 82

Advantages: Demand characteristics are less likely to occur due to the fact that the researcher is not interacting with the participant. Disadvantages: You are limited to the types of information you can pick up about a person as you are not able to interact with them. Information gathered about the observed is generally less in depth due to the fact that you are not directly with them to ask any questions or etc.

Question 83

What is inter-observer reliability?

Answer 83

Inter-observer reliability refers to the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon. In other words, it refers to how similar the conclusions or findings gained in an observation are between different observers.

Question 84

What is counterbalancing?

Answer 84

Counterbalancing is a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.

Question 85

What is a single blind experiment?

Answer 85

A type of clinical trial in which only the researcher doing the study knows which treatment or intervention the participant is receiving until the trial is over.

Question 86

What is a double blind experiment?

Answer 86

A type of clinical trial in which neither the researcher or the participant know which treatment or intervention they are administering/receiving until the trial is over.

Question 87

What's an Unstructured Observation?

Answer 87

An unstructured observation is a type of observation wherein you record anything on behalf of what you see as interesting. They produce qualitative data.

Question 88

What's a Structured Observation?

Answer 88

A structured observation is a type of observation wherein the investigator observes behavior by using certain pre-determined listing techniques, such as behavioral checklists and sampling. They generally produce quantitative data.

Question 89

What is Event Sampling?

Answer 89

Event sampling is when a researcher records a certain behavior for every time it happens. For example, ticking a box every time the person they're observing picks their nose.

Question 90

Give an advantage and disadvantage of event sampling.

Answer 90

Advantage: Event sampling is relatively easy as you just observe and tick a box when you see a certain behavior shown. It also produces quantitative data which you can use to establish scientific conclusions easier. Investigator bias is not an issue during the observation as the behavior is directly observable and just requires a tick rather than an inference or assumption. Disadvantage: If many things happen at once in the observation, it may be difficult to record it all. You are only able to observe behavior that is directly observable, meaning you are limited to what you can observe. Depending on what you observe, making conclusions could require an inference which can keep you open to investigator bias. It can be pretty tiring as you are constantly observing and this can risk you missing certain behaviors that are being displayed through tiredness.

Question 91

What is time sampling?

Answer 91

Time sampling is a type of sampling during an observation where the observer records behavior from a specific cycle of time, for example, every 10 seconds.

Question 92

Give an advantage and disadvantage of time sampling.

Answer 92

Advantages: There is a higher likelihood that you won't get tired as you are only observing in short bursts, keeping the accuracy of the observation constant. Disadvantages: You may miss certain key behaviors displayed during the time in which you don't have to observe. This can make your observation less representative.

Question 93

How may you check a study for investigator bias?

Answer 93

One of the main issues concerning investigator bias is that the investigation will not be reliable or consistent with other observations with the same purpose: A good way to check for investigator bias in a study is by checking its inter-observer reliability. The results of the study should be compared with other observations of the same study done by different people to collect how similar their results are. If the results are high in inter-observer reliability, this means that the results of the observers are consistent. This means that the study is unlikely to have been effected by bias.

Question 94

What is a questionnaire?

Answer 94

A questionnaire is a set of written questions in which are pre-determined. They can produce qualitative or quantitative data.

Question 95

In a questionnaire, it is important to write good questions. Give two features of a question which make it bad.

Answer 95

Do not make double-barreled questions. Do not use leading questions.

Question 96

What is a leading question?

Answer 96

A leading question is a question which subtly prompts the respondent to answer in a particular way. Leading questions are generally undesirable as they result in false or slanted information.

Question 97

What is a double-barreled question?

Answer 97

A double-barreled question is a question which touches on multiple issues but only allows the responder to reply once.

Question 98

What is an open question?

Answer 98

An open question is a question which allows for a custom, free-form answer.

Question 99

What is a closed question?

Answer 99

A closed question is a question which have answer options that limit the responder to a finite list of given answers, such as 'Yes', 'No' and etc. For example, the 'From a scale of 1 to 10' questions are also closed questions.

Question 100

Give an advantage and disadvantage of open questions.

Answer 100

Advantages: Answers are more likely in depth, giving the person reading the answer more information Disadvantages: Answers are generally much longer and harder to digest when reading as there might be a large amount of qualitative data. This may require inference which can lead to subjectivity issues and bias.

Question 101

Give an advantage and disadvantage of closed questions.

Answer 101

Advantages: Answers are much easier to digest, as they have much less qualitative data and generally don't require inference if made properly, meaning they are more objective. Disadvantages: Answers in closed questions are not able to be free-formed by the person filling in the questionnaire so you might miss out on in depth information which might've been useful to pick up on.

Question 102

Compare closed questions to open questions.

Answer 102

Closed questions only allow the person filling in the questionnaire to answer from a set list of pre-established options, whereas, in Open questions, the person filling in the questionnaire is able to answer in any way they feel and they are not forced to answer from a pre-established list of options.

Question 103

What is a filler question?

Answer 103

A filler question is a question irrelevant to the purpose of the questionnaire to distract the respondent from what they think the purpose of the questionnaire is.

Question 104

What is a pilot study?

Answer 104

Pilot studies are small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation.​

Question 105

Evaluate the use of questionnaires.

Answer 105

Advantages: No special training is needed to hand out or carry out questionnaires, something that interviews require. It is relatively cheap to distribute. People who respond to the questionnaire may feel more confident about releasing confidential and sensitive information. Disadvantages: Questionnaires can only be filled out by those who read and write, and so excludes a certain small subgroup of people, making it less representative. People who are filling out the questionnaire may be biased, for example social desirability bias can still occur as people still want to seem desirable and so might lie about things such as their income. Can take a while to design properly, as questions need to be thought out beforehand

Question 106

What is a structured interview?

Answer 106

In a structured interview, the questions the interviewer asks are pre-established and have been made before the interview has actually been started. There is no deviation from the original questions - you cannot ask your own questions even if you pick up on something interesting that won't be covered. It's basically a questionnaire but with a real person.

Question 107

What is an unstructured interview?

Answer 107

In an unstructured interview, the questions that the interviewer asks are not pre-established, they are being made as the interview goes along. The questions are generally determined from the answers that are given.

Question 108

Give the advantages and disadvantages of a structured interview.

Answer 108

Advantages: Requires a less experienced interviewer as they are just asking from a list of questions and don't actually need to interact much with the person they're interviewing. As a result, you usually don't need to hire an interviewer and so it's generally cheap. If you interview multiple people, since you are using the same questions, the results can be compared. Disadvantages: In a structured interview, you cannot deviate from the answers you are given. This means that you may miss out on asking about certain details you see in the interview. This leads to structured interviews lacking depth.

Question 109

Give the advantages and disadvantages of an unstructured interview.

Answer 109

Advantages: Likely to be much more in depth as you are able to make your own questions and reflect them on details you may see in the interview that are interesting and might be valuable knowing. Disadvantages: Requires a skilled interviewer. This can mean unstructured interviews can often be expensive, especially if it's done with many people. You cannot compare the results of interviews with other people as the questions given are not the same - they vary depending on the person. The quick nature of developing questions during the interview may cause the interviewer to miss out on certain details that might've been worth picking up on.

Question 110

You have been asked to construct questions for an interview about peoples attitudes towards smoking. ​ 1 - Write one closed question and one open question for this interview. 2 - Evaluate the use of an interview.

Answer 110

1 - Closed question = Do you think smoking is healthy? Open question = Can you describe your opinion about smoking? 2 - Advantages: An interview for this type of investigation will allow for more in depth information to be collected. The questions in an interview may not be pre-established. This means that you are able to make sure you collect all the necessary details as accurately as possible as well as extra details that may be useful to the investigation. Disadvantages: Interviews can take a while and do take longer than questionnaires on average, as well as requiring a person to actively be working on asking questions to individuals. This can make it more costly, and longer to gather data. In order to get an interview with more rich data, which requires generally open questions, you may need a skilled interviewer. This can be expensive.

Question 111

Questionnaires and Interviews are both self-report techniques. Explain one disadvantage and one advantage of using a questionnaire rather than an interview.

Answer 111

Disadvantages: The questions shown in questionnaires have to be pre-established questions formed by the investigators. This can be an issue, as if you miss a certain detail and release the questionnaire, it may be too late to change the questions to include it. Questionnaires are often made for people who know how to read and write. This can exclude certain subgroups of people, making the data collected less representative. Advantages: Questionnaires are more likely to produce quantitative data, which is easier to analyze. Questionnaires don't carry on extra costs, such as the cost for using a skilled interviewer which may be needed for interviews. As well as this, questionnaires do not require someone like an interview to collect data, it is usually a question sheet done on paper or technologically which means it is much less laborious to carry out.

Question 112

What is a case study?

Answer 112

An in-depth study that gathers a lot of detail about one person or a small group.

Question 113

Give an advantage of a case study.

Answer 113

Case studies allow researchers to obtain rich data in a lot of detail.

Question 114

Give a disadvantage of a case study.

Answer 114

Ethics are often an issue as if the case study is done on an individual person or group, gaining informed consent can be very difficult, if not impossible. You can't generalize case studies, it's research on a very small sample. Case studies often take a long time.

Question 115

What is content analysis?

Answer 115

Content analysis is a research method used to analyze secondary data. It involves splitting the data into assigned categories.

Question 116

Give an advantage of content analysis.

Answer 116

Fairly inexpensive Participants aren't directly involved in this research method and so ethics are often not an issue.

Question 117

Give a disadvantage of content analysis.

Answer 117

The data you will see in content analysis is up for interpretation, therefore there is a risk for subjectivity. Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data.

Question 118

The British Psychological Society is responsible for making sure that psychological experiments are done ethically. List three features shown in their ethical guidelines.

Answer 118

Confidentiality - none of the participants in a psychological study should be identifiable from any reports that are produced. Informed Consent - Participants must be given informed consent. They should be told the aims and nature of the study before agreeing to it. Right To Withdraw - Participants can leave the study at any time. Deception - If participants have been deceived, then they cannot have given informed consent. Protection From Harm - participants in the experiment should have a risk of harm no greater than they would face in their normal lives.

Question 119

The BPS (British Psychological Society) states that psychological experiments must offer Informed Consent. In this context, what is Informed Consent?

Answer 119

Informed Consent is when a participant consents to being part of a psychological study, while being fully informed on what the study will subject them to. However, researchers often do not reveal every single detail about the experiment, such as the true intention, as it is important to decrease demand characteristics to keep experiments effective.

Question 120

The BPS (British Psychological Society) states that psychological experiments must maintain Privacy. In this context, what is Confidentiality?

Answer 120

Privacy in psychological experiments refer to the fact that participants in the study should not be able to identified by any reports published or otherwise. If there is not full privacy, participants in the study must be warned beforehand.

Question 121

The BPS (British Psychological Society) states that participants in psychological experiments must not be deceived. In this context, what is Deception?

Answer 121

It can be necessary to deceive (lie) about the true aims of a study otherwise participants may alter their behavior. The BPS has argued that if deception occurs, participants were not given informed consent. However, they see this as justified if there is strong scientific justification for the case.

Question 122

The BPS (British Psychological Society) states that participants in psychological experiments must be protected from harm. In this context, what is Protection from harm?

Answer 122

It has been stated that the psychological or physical harm on participants should not be greater than what they experience in their normal lives. It is hard to accurately assess this, however.

Question 123

Explain why a researcher would conduct a pilot study

Answer 123

A researcher may want to conduct a pilot study as it is a great way to check for issues concerning the actual experiment before releasing it on a large scale, in order to make sure it is as effective as possible in the safest way.

Question 124

One situation in which disruption of attachment can occur is when a mother of a young child is admitted into hospital. A researcher decided to study the behavior of a two year old boy who experienced this disruption of attachment.​ She decided to use naturalistic observation of the boy both before his mother was admitted into hospital and after she returned home. Each period of observation lasted for one hour.​ Explain why the psychologist might want to carry out a pilot study before the main observation. (2 marks) ​

Answer 124

The psychologist might want to carry out a pilot study before the main observation to identify any weaknesses in her naturalistic observation beforehand in order for them to be solved. So, when the real observation begins, there is less chance for error and the experiment is more likely to be valid and reliable.

Question 125

In statistics, what is a correlation?

Answer 125

A correlation is a term in statistics used to highlight the relationship between two variables.

Question 126

What is a negative and positive correlation?

Answer 126

A negative correlation is a correlation where there is a negative relationship between the two variables being measured. For example, when one increases, the other decreases. A positive correlation is a correlation where there is a positive relationship between the two variables being measured. For example, when one increases, the other increases.

Question 127

The line on a graph is upwards sloping. The graph has variables labelled on both the x and y axis. What correlation does the 2 variables have?

Answer 127

Positive

Question 128

The line on a graph is downwards sloping. The graph has variables labelled on both the x and y axis. What correlation does the 2 variables have?

Answer 128

Negative

Question 129

Describe the correlation coefficient.

Answer 129

The correlation coefficient is a scientific way to measure at what extent the correlation between 2 variables are at.

Question 130

if x increases by 5 (+5) causing y to decrease by 5 (therefore -5), what is the correlation value?

Answer 130

-5/5 = -1 (-100%)

Question 131

if x increases by 10 (+10) causing y to decrease by 6 (therefore -6), what is the correlation value?

Answer 131

-6/10 = -0.6 (-60%)

Question 132

if x increases by 12 causing y to increase by 1, what is the correlation value?

Answer 132

1/12 = 0.083 (+8.3%)

Question 133

What does a correlation coefficient of 0.00 show?

Answer 133

There is no relationship between the 2 variables.

Question 134

if x increases by 19 causing y to increase by 0, what is the correlation value?

Answer 134

0/12 = 0.00 (0%)

Question 135

What does a correlation coefficient of 1.00 show?

Answer 135

The increase in one variable causes the equal increase in another.

Question 136

What does a correlation coefficient of -1.00 show?

Answer 136

The increase in one variable causes the equal decrease in another.

Question 137

If there is a 0.4 correlation between friends and happiness, give a reason as to why it's not higher.

Answer 137

Other variables influence the reason you are happy, not just your friends.

Question 138

Give an advantage and disadvantage of correlations.

Answer 138

Advantages: Correlations are generally easy to carry out and are seen as ethical - no experimental method is initially needed for it. They may show a connection between two variables where experimental proof is generally impossible. Disadvantages: They do not establish casual relationships (cause and effect). There is a difference between correlation and causation. Correlations only feature what you put on them. So for example, if you try to research the effect between violent crime and icecream sales, you may see an increase but it's likely due to a third variable you are not considering. For example, is it summer? This can make correlations unreliable. Correlations show linear relationships, but not curvilinear ones and so are sometimes unreliable. To understand this, look at: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/809882823196147792/unknown.png

Question 139

What is Descriptive Statistics?

Answer 139

Descriptive statistics is a term used to describe the patterns found in a set of data.

Question 140

What is Central Tendency?

Answer 140

Central Tendency is a term within Descriptive Statistics wherein the average, central position of data within a statistic is calculated.

Question 141

What is Nominal Data?

Answer 141

Nominal data is when data is featured in categories on a statistic. For example, 'attachment type'.

Question 142

What is Ordinal Data?

Answer 142

Ordinal data is when data is featured into categories in an order. For example, 'lowest to highest marks on exam'.

Question 143

What is Interval Data?

Answer 143

Interval data is when data is measured by equal intervals. For example, 'number of correct answers'.

Question 144

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: Sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous

Answer 144

Nominal This is because the data is being assigned into categories that are unrelated.

Question 145

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: People sorted from tallest to shortest

Answer 145

Ordinal This is because data is being assigned into categories from a hierarchy

Question 146

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: Hair color

Answer 146

Nominal This is because the data is being assigned into categories that are unrelated.

Question 147

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: Yes, no, maybe

Answer 147

Nominal This is because the data is being assigned into categories that aren't directly related.

Question 148

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: Number of ideas generated from individuals

Answer 148

Interval This is because data is being generated from categories by intervals.

Question 149

Ordinal, Interval or Nominal: Rating on a mental health scale with 50 being very well and 0 being failing to function adequately

Answer 149

Interval This is because data is being generated from categories by units of equal intervals.

Question 150

Finds the mean from these numbers: 1,2,3,4,5

Answer 150

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 15 / 5 = 3

Question 151

Find the median from these numbers: 5,3,2,1,4

Answer 151

Put them in order: 1,2,3,4,5 Find the middle: 3

Question 152

Find the median from these numbers: 5,3,2,6,1,4

Answer 152

Put them in order: 1,2,3,4,5,6 Find the middle: 3,4 Add 3 and 4 together and divide by 2: 3 + 4 = 7 7 / 2 = 3.5

Question 153

Find the mode from these numbers: 1,1,2,2,2,3,3,3,4,5,5,5,5

Answer 153

``` There is a total of two 1 There is a total of three 2 There is a total of three 3 There is a total of one 4 There is a total of four 5 ``` The mode is 5 - it is the number that occurs most frequently

Question 154

Find the range from these numbers: 7,3,1,5,10

Answer 154

Lowest number = 1 Highest number = 10 10 - 1 = 9

Question 155

Find the mode from these numbers: 1,2,3,4,5

Answer 155

There is no mode.

Question 156

Find the mode from these numbers: 1,1,1,2,3,3,4,4,4,5,5

Answer 156

4 and 1 occur the most, with the same amount. | 4 and 1 are the mode. This is bimodal.

Question 157

Give the three ways to measure Central Tendency.

Answer 157

Mean Median Mode

Question 158

What type of data can the Mean be used for?

Answer 158

Interval

Question 159

What type of data can the Mode be used for?

Answer 159

Nominal, Ordinal and Interval

Question 160

What type of data can the Median be used for?

Answer 160

Interval and Ordinal data

Question 161

What can the Range be used to measure?

Answer 161

Dispersion of data

Question 162

What is measures of dispersion in statistics?

Answer 162

Measures of dispersion refers to how spread out data items are in a statistic.

Question 163

Give a disadvantage and advantage of using the range in statistics.

Answer 163

Advantages: Easy to calculate Disadvantages: Fails to take into account the distribution of values Affected heavily by extreme values

Question 164

Give a disadvantage and advantage of using the mean in statistics.

Answer 164

Advantages: It takes into account the distribution of all the values in a data set, making it the most representative. Disadvantages: Can be distorted (skewed) by extreme values. This can make it unrepresentative following the representation of the average, making it misleading. It can give unrealistically precise data. For example, if the mean calculates the average family having 2.4 children, what is 0.4 of a child?

Question 165

Give a disadvantage and advantage of using the median in statistics.

Answer 165

Advantages: Not affected by extreme values - less likely to be misleading. Disadvantages: Exact values are not reflected, just the middle ones, and so the median is often not representative of the whole data set.

Question 166

Give a disadvantage and advantage of using the mode in statistics.

Answer 166

Advantages: Not affected by extreme values - less likely to be misleading. Can be used for all types of data. Disadvantages: The mode generally does not have much weight in explanation and importance, so people might not bother even looking at the mode in a data set. It can be laborious to carry out if there is a lot of data to count to find the most popular. Not useful for explaining data if there's more than one mode.

Question 167

What does the Standard Deviation show?

Answer 167

Standard deviation shows the average distance of data items from the mean.

Question 168

What does the Standard Deviation measure in statistics?

Answer 168

Measures of dispersion

Question 169

Give an advantage and disadvantage of Standard Deviation in statistics.

Answer 169

Advantages: This is a precise measure of dispersion because it takes into account all the exact values, something the range doesn't do. Disadvantages: It's generally seen as the hardest to calculate, requiring a calculator. Affected by extreme values.

Question 170

The way data is distributed is important to understand in order to go into further analysis of data. Draw a curve which shows a normal distribution.

Answer 170

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813744184913428480/unknown.png

Question 171

Describe the features of a normal distribution.

Answer 171

A normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean. This symmetry means that the mean, median and mode are all the same, giving the curve an identical distribution on both sides from the midpoint.

Question 172

Give a measure of central tendency which can be used for all levels of measurement.

Answer 172

Mode

Question 173

Give a measure of central tendency which can only be used for interval data.

Answer 173

Mean

Question 174

The way data is distributed is important to understand in order to go into further analysis of data. Draw a curve which shows a positively skewed distribution.

Answer 174

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813747579212791828/unknown.png

Question 175

The way data is distributed is important to understand in order to go into further analysis of data. Draw a curve which shows a negatively skewed distribution.

Answer 175

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813747615266766918/unknown.png

Question 176

Describe the features of a positively skewed distribution.

Answer 176

If data is positively skewed, there is a cluster of scores at the lower end of the data set. The curve has a tail on the right side of the peak - it is said to be skewed to the right. The mean is larger than the median and the mode.

Question 177

Describe the features of a negatively skewed distribution.

Answer 177

For a negative skew, there are more scores at the higher end of the data set. The tail is on the left side of the peak - it is skewed to the left. The mean is less than the median, which is less than the mode.

Question 178

Why do we bother using graphs in research methods?

Answer 178

We use graphs for an array of reasons: It is a way to visually represent data for better understanding Graphs can also help with estimations in a pattern set of data by the best fit, which may help in a researcher's hypothesis.

Question 179

Describe the structure of a bar chart graph.

Answer 179

Bar charts are usually used to present 'non-continuous data' (when a variable falls into categories rather than being measured on a numbered scale). The columns in bar charts don't touch each other, and this is to indicate there are no continuity between them.

Question 180

Describe the structure of a histogram.

Answer 180

Histograms show data measured on a 'continuous' scale of measurement. It has intervals on the x axis, and frequency on the y axis - bars touch in order to show continuity.

Question 181

What does a scattergram show?

Answer 181

Scattergrams can provide an initial relationship between two variables, as well as how strong that relationship is (Strong, Moderate, Weak, None)

Question 182

What degree of correlation is this? https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813753490374787072/unknown.png

Answer 182

Weak Positive

Question 183

What degree of correlation is this? https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813753626451116102/unknown.png

Answer 183

Moderate Negative

Question 184

What degree of correlation is this? https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813753885947985970/unknown.png

Answer 184

None

Question 185

What degree of correlation is this? https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/813753987857252382/unknown.png

Answer 185

Strong Negative

Question 186

Participants in an experiment were shown a film of a robbery. The participants were then divided into two groups. One group was interviewed using a standard interview technique and the other group was interviewed using the cognitive interview technique. All participants were then given an 'accuracy score' out of 20 based on how closely their recall matched the events in the film (20 = completely accurate, 0 = not at all). The results of the experiment were calculated as the median accuracy score for the standard interview and cognitive interview, with a median of 10 on standard interview and a median of 15 on cognitive interview. Sketch an appropriate graphical display to show the median accuracy scores in the table above.

Answer 186

1 mark for each of the following: * display as a bar chart * both axes labelled correctly * an informative title with reference to the IV and DV * y axis has appropriate scaling * bars are separate * bars are plotted reasonably correctly. https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/834870234422575104/unknown.png

Question 187

What types of data can a bar graph be used for?

Answer 187

Nominal

Question 188

What types of data can a histogram be used for?

Answer 188

Interval and Ordinal

Question 189

A researcher was interested in the relationship between the number of hours a course was taught using a computer program and the satisfaction of the students on the course. As part of his research he conducted a pilot study as follows. A topic from a business studies course was divided into 10 equal one-hour sessions. Eleven students who were matched for their high level of interest in business studies took part in the study. Explain why it was important to match the students on their high level of interest in business studies.

Answer 189

The initial level of interest in business studies can affect the satisfaction expressed. ``` As a result, it is important to keep the levels of interest constant between all individuals in order to make sure the participant variable is controlled. ```

Question 190

A researcher was interested in the relationship between the number of hours a course was taught using a computer program and the satisfaction of the students on the course. As part of his research he conducted a pilot study as follows. A topic from a business studies course was divided into 10 equal one-hour sessions. Eleven students who were matched for their high level of interest in business studies took part in the study. All 11 students completed all 10 hours of the topic. They were taught either completely online, with a combination of online teaching and classroom teaching, or just in a classroom. Each student was allocated a letter, from A to K randomly. This determined the number of hours they studied online and the number of hours they studied in a classroom. The sample used in this pilot study was an opportunity sample. Briefly explain how using a stratified sample when the final study is conducted might be an improvement to the design.

Answer 190

``` A stratified sample can be an improvement to the design, as participants are picked from a population which is divided into subgroups picked by the researcher, wherein the % of individuals in each subgroup are translated into the sample to keep it representative of the population. ``` ``` This means that the internal validity of the experiment will be better established as participants will be more similar to each other controlling certain variables which might confound the results of the study. ``` - Certain types of people are more likely to be physically present to be picked for opportunity sampling which makes the sample picked from opportunity sampling less representative of the general population.

Question 191

A researcher was interested in the relationship between the number of hours a course was taught using a computer program and the satisfaction of the students on the course. As part of his research he conducted a pilot study as follows. A topic from a business studies course was divided into 10 equal one-hour sessions. Eleven students who were matched for their high level of interest in business studies took part in the study. All 11 students completed all 10 hours of the topic. They were taught either completely online, with a combination of online teaching and classroom teaching, or just in a classroom. Each student was allocated a letter, from A to K randomly. This determined the number of hours they studied online and the number of hours they studied in a classroom. The sample used in this pilot study was an opportunity sample. Briefly explain how using a stratified sample when the final study is conducted might be an improvement to the design. Suggest one other variable for which the researcher should have matched the students. Explain how this might have affected the satisfaction scores if it was not controlled.

Answer 191

The students should have been matched on similar academic ability, i.e. The grades achieved by each student should be similar and they should be in the same year group. This is because your satisfaction doing the course may change depending on your academic ability. For example, having much better academic stats may indicate you are better at digesting and understanding information, meaning that you may enjoy the course more and therefore have a high satisfaction score - opposite for lower, therefore confounding the results of the study. Therefore academic ability between students must be very similar or constant to minimize the effect of the participant variable on the results of the study.

Question 192

A researcher designed a questionnaire to collect data from the students about how satisfied they felt when they had completed a business studies course. Give an example of an appropriate question that the researcher might use to collect qualitative data on the questionnaire.

Answer 192

What did you like/dislike about the course? -

Question 193

Briefly explain one problem a researcher might have in analyzing qualitative data collected from the questionnaires.

Answer 193

Qualitative data requires interpretation from the investigator in order to analyze which can be biased/inaccurate.

Question 194

An investigator has created a questionnaire which has been given to certain students. Outline one ethical issue that should have been taken into account when carrying out the questionnaire.

Answer 194

Students should be treated with respect by explaining that their answers will be kept confidential. Students must be assured that they can withdraw their answers if they want to.

Question 195

What does 'p' mean as a measurement?

Answer 195

Probability - it is the likelihood of something occurring. due to chance - when there is a chance of something else affecting the DV that isn't the IV.

Question 196

A scientist says that all of us will die one day. What is the p value of this?

Answer 196

1 - there is a 100% chance, - a certainty that everyone will die one day

Question 197

What is the p value of dinosaurs coming back in the next second?

Answer 197

0 - It is not possible, nor probable.

Question 198

What is the null hypothesis?

Answer 198

The null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis that states there is no significant difference between 2 variables.

Question 199

There will be no significant difference in the height of boys and girls in this room. Is this a null, directional or non-directional hypothesis? Explain why.

Answer 199

Null This is because the hypothesis describes there being no significant difference between 2 variables which is a null hypothesis.

Question 200

Psychologists are satisfied with what P value in a normal study?

Answer 200

95% This means there's a 5% chance the results from the study generated due to chance. In a normal study, it is usually 95% because there's no disadvantage associated with the study being due to chance.

Question 201

In a field of research where the results of a study, if false, could have extreme side effects, what P value would psychologists want?

Answer 201

As close to 100% as possible This is because, in certain fields such as drug testing, your study on what allergies the drug triggers ending up being due to chance means that it was not caused or influenced fully by the IV - this gives you a confounding result that may cause lives to be lost by allergies and etc. For example if you say your drug doesn't trigger a certain allergy, a P value as close to 100% should be maintained as people want to make sure your result was not due to chance as the consequence of it being so may mean someone gets an allergy.

Question 202

What is p expressed as?

Answer 202

Percentage

Question 203

Describe what P > 0.5 means.

Answer 203

The probability for the results of a study to not be due to chance, which means the results of the study were as a result of the IV and no other extraneous variable, is 50%.

Question 204

If your results of a study are statistically significant, what does this mean?

Answer 204

The results of the study were unlikely to be made due to chance.

Question 205

If the results of a study are not statistically significant, what does this mean?

Answer 205

The results of the study were likely to be made due to chance.

Question 206

List the 2 types of tests used in inferential statistics.

Answer 206

Parametric tests | Non-Parametric tests

Question 207

Why do psychologists use a parametric test?

Answer 207

If a psychologist's experimental design and method allows them to use one of the parametric tests, the psychologist may find it handy. This is because parametric tests can be used to find if your results are significant.

Question 208

There is certain criteria that justifies the use of a parametric test. List 2 requirements for using one.

Answer 208

Data set must be normally distributed (not skewed). The data level must be interval/ratio Set of scores gathered in each condition must have a similar distribution to each other

Question 209

Give 2 examples of a Parametric test. Attempt to mention all 3.

Answer 209

Unrelated t test Related t test Pearson's r

Question 210

Give 3 examples of a Non-Parametric test. Attempt to mention all 5.

Answer 210

``` Wilcoxon matched pairs Mann-Whitney U Chi-Squared Spearman's rho Sign test ```

Question 211

An experiment: - Uses interval data - Data set forms a negative skew Can a parametric test be used?

Answer 211

No

Question 212

An experiment: - Uses ratio data - Data set forms normal distribution Can a parametric test be used?

Answer 212

Yes

Question 213

An experiment: - Uses ratio data - Data set forms positive skew Can a parametric test be used?

Answer 213

No

Question 214

An experiment: - Uses ordinal data - Data set forms a normal distribution - Data is correlational What type of test will be used here? What is the name of the test?

Answer 214

Non-parametric test | Spearman's rho

Question 215

An experiment: - Uses nominal data - Data is not correlational - Data set forms a positive skew - Is an Independent groups design What type of test will be used here? What is the name of the test?

Answer 215

Non-parametric test | Chi-squared

Question 216

An experiment: - Uses nominal data - Data set forms a normal distribution - Features correlational data - Not an independent groups design What type of test will be used here? What is the name of the test?

Answer 216

Non-parametric test | Sign test

Question 217

An experiment: - Features non-correlational data - Is an Independent groups design - Uses ordinal data What type of test will be used here? What is the name of this test?

Answer 217

Non-parametric test | Mann-Whitney

Question 218

An experiment: - Features non-correlational data - Is not an Independent groups design - Uses ordinal data - Data set forms a normal distribution What type of test will be used here? What is the name of this test?

Answer 218

Non-parametric test | Wilcoxon

Question 219

An experiment: - Features correlational data - Data set forms a normal distribution - Uses ratio data - Uses an independent groups design What type of test will be used here? What is the name of this test?

Answer 219

Parametric test | Pearson's r

Question 220

An experiment: - Features non-correlational data - Data set forms a normal distribution - Uses interval data - Uses an independent groups design What type of test will be used here? What is the name of this test?

Answer 220

Parametric test | Unrelated t-test

Question 221

An experiment: - Features non-correlational data - Data set forms a normal distribution - Uses interval data - Uses a repeated measures design What type of test will be used here? What is the name of this test?

Answer 221

Parametric test | Repeated t-test

Question 222

The tutor2u website features certain questions to make you think about what test to use. Highlight at least 4 questions and which belongs to which parametric test.

Answer 222

Is data correlational? (Both) Can you use a parametric test? Is an independent groups design used? (Both) Is data nominal? (Non-parametric)

Question 223

# Fill in the table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/832363088099147846/unknown.png 'Unrelated design' = independent measures design 'Related design' = repeated measures & matched pairs design

Answer 223

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/832364380427255848/unknown.png

Question 224

There is a mnemonic which is: Simon Cowell Wants More Singers Receiving Unanimous Praise List the 8 inferential tests.

Answer 224

``` S = Sign test C = Chi-squared W = Wilcoxon M = Mann-Whitney U S = Spearman's rho R = Related t test U = Unrelated t test P = Pearson's r ```

Question 225

Give the conditions of a research study required for the usage of the Sign Test.

Answer 225

- The investigation must be testing for a difference, not a correlation - The investigation must collect nominal data - The investigation must have a repeated measures design

Question 226

A researcher is able to confidently assume that the results of their study show a p value of 0.99. Is it likely that the researcher's null hypothesis be accepted or rejected? Describe why.

Answer 226

Rejected. This is because the null hypothesis refers to when there's no significant difference between 2 variables. However, the results of the study that generated the p value of 0.99 states that it is extremely unlikely that the results were generated due to chance so the null hypothesis would be rejected.

Question 227

In an exam, you will be given a scenario. When reading the scenario, give 3 features of the scenario that would require it to be valid for the sign test.

Answer 227

Was the hypothesis directional or non-directional? How many participants are there with + or - signs? What level of probability is used? - The default for all exam questions is where p = 0.05 (5%).

Question 228

Imagine that you have collected some nominal data in a study with 12 participants that is looking at the following:​ The investigator makes a null and alternate hypothesis: The blood pressure (measured after a stress management programme) will have no significant difference between participants who undergo the stress management programme and those who do not. Blood pressure (measured after the stress management programme) will be lower after participants undergo the stress management programme.​ 1) Is the alternate hypothesis a directional or non-directional hypothesis? You are given the sign column: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/833054252225134652/unknown.png 2) Complete the sign column. 3) Work out the N value. 4) Calculate the observed value. Here is a critical value table: https: //media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/833055805241819166/unknown.png 5) Find the critical value. 6) Is the data significant? 7) Can you accept the null hypothesis? Why or why not? 8) Can you accept the alternate hypothesis? Why or why not? ​

Answer 228

1) Directional 2) https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/833054356659241051/unknown.png 3) There are 11 participants that have a + or minus difference (12-11). N = 11. 4) Count number of + and - There is 6 + and 5 - We pick lower end so observed value is 5 5) 2 - this is because we assume probability of significance is 0.05 in all exam questions unless said otherwise and N is 11. 6) Observed value must be less than or equal to the critical value to be significant Observed value is 5 Critical value is 2 It is not significant. 7) The null hypothesis can be accepted as there is no significant difference between both variables affect on the DV. 8) The alternate hypothesis can be rejected as the sign test suggests that there is no significant difference between both variables affect on the DV - thus it is likely due to chance.

Question 229

Bella investigated students' stress levels on a scale of 1-10 before and after their Psychology exam 1 = low stress, 10 = high stress. She hypothesized that they would be significantly more stressed before an exam than after the exam. Her results are shown on a table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/833078008419057694/unknown.png Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/833077635642687538/unknown.png Use the sign test to determine if Bella's results support her hypothesis.

Answer 229

- The hypothesis is one tailed - The N value is 10 as all participants have a difference - There is 7 - and 3 + therefore the observational value is 3 We can now find the critical value - 1 tailed and 10 study. We automatically assume 0.05 probability Our critical value is 1 Since observational value is 3, it is higher than the critical value, thus the results gained from the study are not significant. The results of the study do not support Bella's hypothesis as it suggests that it is likely that the results gained were due to chance, and as a result, you cannot conclude if there is a legitimate difference between the two variables affect on the DV.

Question 230

Read the hypothesis and questions after: Participants will score higher on a fire safety quiz after undergoing fire safety training than before the training. No. of participants: 16 No. who scored a higher mark: 7 No. who scored a lower mark: 6 No. who scored the same mark: 3 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Use the sign test to find out what hypothesis [Null, One tailed, Two tailed] we should accept.

Answer 230

One tailed hypothesis N = 13 Critical value = 3 Observational value = 6 OV > CV therefore it is not significant Accept Null, reject One and Two Tailed

Question 231

Read the hypothesis and questions after: Participants will feel better about taking a psychology exam after an hour long revision session. No. of participants: 20 No. who felt better: 15 No. who felt worse: 4 No. who felt the same: 1 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Use the sign test to find out what hypothesis [Null, One tailed, Two tailed] we should accept.

Answer 231

One tailed hypothesis N = 19 Observational value = 4 Critical value = 5 OV < CV therefore data is significant Reject Null, accept One and Two Tailed

Question 232

Read the hypothesis and questions after: There will be a difference between the participant’s ability to be able to work in a noisy or quiet room. No. of participants: 10 No. who worked best in quiet: 4 No. who worked best in noise: 5 No. who worked the same: 1 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Use the sign test to find out what hypothesis [Null, One tailed, Two tailed] we should accept.

Answer 232

Two tailed N = 9 Observational value = 4 Critical value = 1 Therefore data is not significant Reject One and Two tailed hypotheses Accept Null hypothesis

Question 233

What is an observational value? What is it also known as?

Answer 233

When finding out if the difference between two values in a participant lead to an increase [+] or decrease [-], the observational value can be found by counting the amount of participants that got a '+' compared to the participants that got a '-'. The symbol that was associated with a lower number of participants is the observational value. It is also known as the value of S.

Question 234

What is the sign test?

Answer 234

The sign test is a non-parametric statistical test of difference that allows a researcher to determine the significance of their investigation. It is used in studies that have used a repeated measures design, where the data collected is nominal.

Question 235

In a piece of research with a one-tailed hypothesis and 25 participants, 19 with + or -, the value of S was found to be 4.​ Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Using the sign test, is data significant?

Answer 235

Value of S is 4 Critical value is 5 As a result it is significant - S is lower than CV

Question 236

In a piece of research with a one-tailed hypothesis and 13 participants, all with + or -, the value of S was found to be 3 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Using the sign test, is data significant?

Answer 236

Value of S is 3 Critical value is 3 As a result it is significant as S value can be = or lower than critical value

Question 237

In a piece of research with a two-tailed hypothesis and 19 participants, only 8 with + or -, the value of S was found to be 4 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Using the sign test, is data significant?

Answer 237

Value of S is 4 Critical value is 0 As a result it is not significant

Question 238

In a piece of research with a two-tailed hypothesis and 25 participants, 20 with + or -, the value of S was found to be 3 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/773627938334572555/833088494967717918/unknown.png?width=1202&height=563 Using the sign test, is data significant?

Answer 238

Value of S is 3 Critical value is 4 As a result it is significant

Question 239

If psychological research is made public, where does it usually go to?

Answer 239

Psychological research is published in journals, these are then easily accessible to everyone (students, other psychologists, government, etc.)

Question 240

Before research reports make it to a journal, what must take place?

Answer 240

A peer review

Question 241

What might people do with research published in journals?

Answer 241

Investigators may choose to replicate the study using the report for more information The media may pick up on it

Question 242

The creation of a research report often has how many sections?

Answer 242

6

Question 243

Name all sections of a research report.

Answer 243

``` Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References ```

Question 244

In a research report, there is a section called 'Abstract' - describe what it is.

Answer 244

The abstract's a concise summary of the report (often no more than 120 words), telling the reader about the research and findings without them having to read the whole report. It should include: -Brief descriptions of the aims, all the hypotheses, the method and the results.

Question 245

Once a research study has been done, what do you have to write out?

Answer 245

A research report.

Question 246

In a research report, there is a section called 'Introduction' - describe what it is.

Answer 246

The introduction is a general overview of the area being studied, including existing theories. it should also discuss a few studies closely related to the current study.

Question 247

In a research report, there is a section called 'Method' - describe what it is.

Answer 247

A detailed description of what the researchers did, providing enough information for replication of the study: Design (Independent measures, repeated measures) – Why and how?​ Participants – (opportunity, random, stratified) – Why and who? ​ Apparatus/Materials – Lab? Computer? Questionnaire? ​ Ethics – How were ethical issues avoided or dealt with or avoided? ​ Procedure - A blow by blow account of what happened each time a participant took part; how the researcher and the investigation were introduced, how informed consent was gained, how participants were debriefed, etc.

Question 248

In a research report, there is a section called 'Results' - describe what it is.

Answer 248

What the researcher found, including the descriptive stats (graphs, tables) and inferential statistics (significance levels, statement of whether null hypothesis was accepted or rejected, statistical tests) ​ If qualitative research, categories and themes are described. ​

Question 249

What is a peer review?

Answer 249

Peer review is a process that takes place before a study is published to check the quality and validity of the research, and to ensure that the research contributes to its field. The process is carried out by experts in that particular field of psychology.

Question 250

Why are research reports and papers peer reviewed?

Answer 250

Peer review has a number of functions: ​ Any research that is published should be of high quality​, which is important to be on par with other studies in a research journal. It helps to allocate research funding – the UK government currently spends £5.8 billion on research, and this needs to go to worthwhile studies​. Peer review contributes greatly to the research rating of university departments, which is often highly sought after.. It is meant to spot fraudulent research, so that any research that is published can be trusted by the general public​.

Question 251

A contextual example can be brought up with an individual's study that did not get handled properly during the peer review process and was leaked. What contextual example is this?

Answer 251

Andrew Wakefield had a study saying that the MMR vaccination was linked with the development of autism. ​ It turned out that he was wrong – his methods were faulty, and the conclusions based on unscientific work. There was a conflict of interest​. He has been struck off the medical council, and can no longer be a doctor. ​ However the rumors about MMR persist, and many parents chose not to vaccinate their children. The rate of measles infections has shot up, an it can be fatal in young children.

Question 252

Explain why peer review is essential to the scientific process.

Answer 252

Firstly, peer review is essential to the scientific process as it maintains the integrity of research - fraudulent behavior, such as plagiarism, can be detected before the research is published to the public. As well as this, peer review is essential the scientific process as it maintains a high research quality. When getting another expert to review your report, they can identify mistakes in calculation and potential issues which may affect the research rating of universities, which is seen as very important. You can also mention: +To allocate research funding (it's limited)

Question 253

Explain two criticisms of peer review.

Answer 253

Firstly, peer review involves the use of only one expert in the field reviewing your journal. This is an issue, as certain research reports may be seen as acceptable to publish by one expert, but not acceptable to publish by another, and so one individual may not be enough to establish the report as valid enough to be public. Secondly, individuals reviewing research reports may be affected by biases, such as expectancy bias, wherein their conclusion is affected by what they're expected to conclude, and so the outcome of if the research is accepted or not may be biased.

Question 254

In a research report, there is a section called 'References' - describe what it is.

Answer 254

The references section contains a list of all the books, articles and websites that have been used for information during the study. It allows the reader to see where the information on the research and theories mentioned in the report came from, allowing them for potential further reading. If the references section is not completed properly and researchers are not mentioned when they should be, this may be plagiarism.

Question 255

What is reliability?

Answer 255

Reliability is the extent to which a test produces a consistent finding every time it is done.​

Question 256

Describe and outline how we assess reliability with questionnaires and psychological tests.

Answer 256

Test-retesting This refers to administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. If the test is reliable then the results will be the same or very close across times and occasions; this is mainly used with questionnaires and psychological tests (such as IQ tests) but can also be applied to interviews.

Question 257

Describe and outline how we assess reliability with observations.

Answer 257

Inter-observer reliability Inter-observer reliability refers to the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon. In other words, it refers to how similar the conclusions or findings gained in an observation are between different observers.

Question 258

What is test-retesting?

Answer 258

test-retesting refers to administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. If the test is reliable then the results will be the same or very close across times and occasions; this is mainly used with questionnaires and psychological tests (such as IQ tests) but can also be applied to interviews.

Question 259

What is inter-rater reliability used in?

Answer 259

Content Analysis

Question 260

What is inter-interviewer reliability used in?

Answer 260

Interviews

Question 261

Name the 3 types of inter reliability.

Answer 261

Inter-observer Inter-interviewer Inter-rater

Question 262

A test which scores low on the test-retest is usually under what number?

Answer 262

0.80

Question 263

A questionnaire scores low on the test-retest. Following this, what should occur?

Answer 263

A questionnaire which scores low on test-retest reliability (under +.80) may need some of the questions deselected or rewritten. – questions must not be ambiguous, complex or subjective. ​

Question 264

Outline two things you can do to make sure that an observation will be reliable when tested by test-retesting.

Answer 264

Making sure that behavioural categories used during the observations are properly operationalised (measurable and self-evident). ​ Categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be covered on the checklist.

Question 265

What is a behavioral category?

Answer 265

When conducting structured observations, psychologists have to decide which specific behaviors should be examined. They need to operationalize the behavior through the use of behavioral categories. This involves breaking the target behavior (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting, kicking).

Question 266

What is a sampling frame?

Answer 266

A sampling frame is a list of everyone in the target population from which a sample is drawn. Examples of this would be the electoral roll or a telephone directory.

Question 267

What is Validity?

Answer 267

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.

Question 268

List 4 types of validity.

Answer 268

``` Face Validity External Validity Internal Validity Ecological Validity Population Validity Temporal (historical) Validity Construct Validity ```

Question 269

What is Internal Validity?

Answer 269

Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

Question 270

What is External Validity?

Answer 270

External validity is a measure of whether data can be generalized to other situations outside of the research environment they were originally gathered in.

Question 271

What is Temporal Validity?

Answer 271

Temporal validity is a type of external validity that refers to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time.

Question 272

What is Population Validity?

Answer 272

Population Validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other people. It is a type of external validity.

Question 273

What is Face Validity?

Answer 273

Face Validity is a measure of whether your method or results look subjectively promising on the surface. For example, looking at something and thinking it proves your hypothesis gives you a good Face Validity.

Question 274

What is Concurrent Validity?

Answer 274

Concurrent Validity is a type of external validity. It is whether a measure is in agreement with pre-existing measures that are validated to test for the same [or a very similar] concept (gauged by correlating measures against each other). To calculate for concurrent validity, you can give participants a previously validated measure and a new one and check the results. ​

Question 275

What is Mundane Realism?

Answer 275

Mundane realism describes the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world. It is a type of external validity.

Question 276

What is Construct Validity?

Answer 276

Construct Validity a type of internal validity. It is whether a measure successfully measures the concept it is supposed to (e.g. does a questionnaire measure IQ, or something related but crucially different?).

Question 277

What is Ecological Validity?

Answer 277

Ecological validity is a type of external validity that refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting.

Question 278

Give at least 3 types of external validity.

Answer 278

Ecological Validity Mundane Realism Population Validity Temporal Validity

Question 279

Give 2 types of internal validity.

Answer 279

Concurrent Validity | Construct Validity

Question 280

Describe Validity and Reliability.

Answer 280

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Reliability is the extent to which a test produces a consistent finding every time it is done.​

Question 281

In an experiment into forgetting, two groups of participants learned a list of ten words. Each group was then given a 'new' list to learn - either synonyms (words with the same meanings as those in the original list) or nonsense syllables. Both groups then recalled the words from the original list. 1) Write a suitable hypothesis for the study.

Answer 281

1) IV = Nonsense syllables or synonyms DV = Number of words recalled There will be no significant difference in the number of words recalled from the original list when being given a list with synonyms compared to nonsense syllables to learn. Accept directional and non-directional; example is Null.

Question 282

In an experiment into forgetting, two groups of participants learned a list of ten words. Each group was then given a 'new' list to learn - either synonyms (words with the same meanings as those in the original list) or nonsense syllables. Both groups then recalled the words from the original list. 2) State the operationalized IV and DV for this study.

Answer 282

2) IV = Type of word - nonsense or syllable | DV = Number of words recalled

Question 283

In an experiment into forgetting, two groups of participants learned a list of ten words. Each group was then given a 'new' list to learn - either synonyms (words with the same meanings as those in the original list) or nonsense syllables. Both groups then recalled the words from the original list. 3) Explain how demand characteristics may have influenced this study.

Answer 283

3) Demand characteristics may have influenced the study as an individual's ability to recall words from the original list may have been affected when they formed a framework of what they thought the researchers wanted from them. As a result of this, the individual may choose to pay a lot more attention to the words given to meet the researchers expectations.

Question 284

In an experiment into forgetting, two groups of participants learned a list of ten words. Each group was then given a 'new' list to learn - either synonyms (words with the same meanings as those in the original list) or nonsense syllables. Both groups then recalled the words from the original list. 3) Explain how randomization could have been used in this study.

Answer 284

The participants names could have been placed in a hat and one at a time pulled out, the first out would be allocated to condition one and the second name out allocated to condition two and so on until all participants were randomly assigned to either condition of the experiment. This helps to overcome investigator bias.

Question 285

Identify the type of experiment (lab, field or quasi, natural) described below: Investigating whether older (over 50) or younger people (under 30) are more likely to binge drink alcohol.

Answer 285

Quasi. Not natural - Age is a true feature of the participant Not laboratory - you have no control over the IV Not field - you have no control over the IV

Question 286

Identify the type of experiment (lab, field or quasi, natural) described below: Comparing the number of 'treats' received on Halloween by children dressed in 'scary' costumes or everyday clothes

Answer 286

Field. Not quasi - You can control what someone wears, clothing is not a true feature of an individual like age is Not laboratory - You have no control over the IV and this was likely done in a naturalistic environment. Not natural - you do have the ability to some extent to control what someone wore if you wanted to.

Question 287

Identify the type of experiment (lab, field or quasi, natural) described below: Measuring how many words from a list people could remember when presented with cues such as category names

Answer 287

Laboratory. Not quasi - IV can be manipulated Not natural - IV can be manipulated Not field - Controlled environment

Question 288

Identify the type of experiment (lab, field or quasi, natural) described below: Measuring the changes in stress levels of people in an affected area before and after an earthquake

Answer 288

Natural. Not field - IV can't be manipulated Not laboratory - IV can't be manipulated Not quasi - earthquake is not a true feature of a participant

Question 289

Two psychologists wanted to study caregiver-child interactions using the Strange Situation; they needed to recruit 50 caregivers (and their babies) and decided to use random sampling. 1) Explain how they could obtain a random sample of caregivers from their local area.

Answer 289

Go to the local council and ask for a record of all of the caregivers and the associated babies in the target population. They can then put all the names in a hat and the first 50 names pulled out from the hat would be the sample.

Question 290

Two psychologists wanted to study caregiver-child interactions using the Strange Situation; they needed to recruit 50 caregivers (and their babies) and decided to use random sampling. Random sampling was used to generate the sample for the experiment. 2) Another psychologist points out that it would be easier to use a volunteer sample. Explain why. 3) Explain why volunteer sampling would probably produce a biased sample.

Answer 290

2) Random sampling means that every single person in the target population has an equal chance of getting chosen - not only does this mean you would have to get the names of all caregivers in the area, you'd also have to document all their names on a list which would take an extremely long amount of time. Using a volunteer sample, you can set up something like an advertisement and you will be able to get caregivers in the area to participate in the experiment as they turn themselves in - a sample is generated much faster. 3) Volunteer sampling would probably produce a biased sample due to the fact that individuals are picked on the basis that they turned themselves in to be studied. Certain types of people are more likely to put themselves forward, which may act a certain way in the study to bias the results in a certain direction - it is not a good representation of all the caregivers.

Question 291

A researcher investigated the effectiveness of a new anti-depressant drug. She randomly allocated participants diagnosed with depression to a treatment group (the new group) or a control group (a placebo). 1) Explain two ethical issues that could have arisen in this study (2+2 marks). 2) Explain how the psychologist could have dealt with each issue (2_2 marks).

Answer 291

1) Firstly, confidentiality may become an issue - this means that any research reports, and any description in general, made on the experiment must keep each participant, if there is any, impossible to identify from any descriptions given about them. Secondly, deception may be used - this refers to when a researcher does not give full information or deceives the individual when they go to the study. This is an extremely effective counter against certain participant variables, however this is highly unethical as it is lying - certain deceptions, such as the use of a placebo, is often used and seen as ethical however. 2) For deception, make sure individuals understand that what they consent to might not be the fully informative of the whole study and this will justify minor forms of deception such as not being told who is using a placebo and who isn't, and if there is even a placebo group. Or, you can just make sure you give fully informed consent (The information the participant has consented to has full information) which means they know everything and no deception was used. To deal with confidentiality, make sure that the individual in the study cannot be identified in any way, shape or form, from any public descriptions and reports on the study that look into the participants in any style.

Question 292

A psychologist studying stages of attachment observed infants in their own homes. he was especially interested in how much stranger anxiety the children showed in response to his presence. 1) Explain how this observation study can be described as: - Overt - Naturalistic - Participant

Answer 292

1) Naturalistic because it took place in the infants own environment and not manipulated in any way Overt because the researcher must have informed the homeowner what they were doing, otherwise they wouldn't have been given entry into their own home. Participant because the observer was actively taking part in the research by being the stranger and causing said anxiety.

Question 293

A psychologist studying stages of attachment observed infants in their own homes. he was especially interested in how much stranger anxiety the children showed in response to his presence. This was a naturalistic observation. 2) Outline one strength and one limitation of this study as a naturalistic observation.

Answer 293

One strength is that the behavior is not being manipulated and takes place in a natural environment - the home, which means that the research is high in ecological validity which means it is more generalizable to everyday life which is in a natural setting. One limitation is the cause and effect - it cannot be established as there was no control of extraneous variables and nothing was being manipulated.

Question 294

A psychologist studying stages of attachment observed infants in their own homes. he was especially interested in how much stranger anxiety the children showed in response to his presence. This was a naturalistic observation. 3) Identify two behavioural categories the psychologist could use to measure stranger anxiety.

Answer 294

3) One could be the distress shown by the infant when the caregiver left the child alone with the stranger. Another behaviour category that might be observed would be how much the infant explored with their environment, e.g. how far they went from the caregiver.

Question 295

A psychologist studying stages of attachment observed infants in their own homes. he was especially interested in how much stranger anxiety the children showed in response to his presence. This was a naturalistic observation. 4) Explain how the psychologist could've used time sampling in this study.

Answer 295

For time sampling, the researcher could have split the observation period up so that it was more manageable, so for example the researcher may be in the home for 2 hours and choose to observe the infant for 5 minutes every 15 minutes.

Question 296

The scientific method refers to the use of investigative methods that are...

Answer 296

Objective, systematic and replicable.

Question 297

Wundt’s new ‘scientific’ approach to psychology was based on two major assumptions.​ List both assumptions.

Answer 297

All behavior is seen as being caused (determined)​ If behavior is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions (predictability)

Question 298

The scientific method is objective. What does this mean?

Answer 298

Objectivity is a feature of science, and if something is objective it is not affected by the personal feelings and experiences of the researcher.

Question 299

The scientific method is replicable. What does this mean?

Answer 299

Replicability is an important feature of science. It means that a study should produce the same results if repeated exactly, regardless of what researcher conducts it.

Question 300

Psychology in science has 4 goals; list and describe all 4.

Answer 300

Description – tells us “what” occurred​ Explanation – tells us “why” a behavior or a mental process occurred​ Prediction – identifies conditions under which a future behavior or mental process is likely to occur​ Change – applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behavior and to bring about desired change

Question 301

Evaluate the scientific approach to psychology.

Answer 301

Advantages: Certain behaviors can be studied objectively, while being fully observable, such as reflex actions, which are scientifically credible and fully objective. Disadvantages: Many psychological phenomena that gets studied is not directly observable, which means it is not always possible to get a fully objective view of it - this decreases the scientific credibility. Scientific psychologists create contrived situations that create artificial behaviors – lack ecological validity.

Question 302

Evaluate the scientific approach to psychology.

Answer 302

Advantages: Certain behaviors can be studied objectively, while being fully observable, such as reflex actions, which are scientifically credible and fully objective. Disadvantages: Many psychological phenomena that gets studied is not directly observable, which means it is not always possible to get a fully objective view of it - this decreases the scientific credibility. Scientific psychologists create contrived situations that create artificial behaviors – lack ecological validity. Not all psychologists share the view that that human behavior can be explored through scientific methods​.

Question 303

Who is Daniel Kahnman?

Answer 303

Daniel Kahneman is an Israeli psychologist and economist notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, as well as behavioral economics.

Question 304

One bias in behavioral economics is 'Availability heuristic', also known as 'Availability bias'. What is this?

Answer 304

Availability bias refers to when you overestimate the probability of something happening based on the fact it happened in the past, more recently. This can affect your decision as if a drought happened last year, people are more likely to overestimate the chance of a drought next year and buy items based on it, such as more water. Another example - people overestimate the likelihood of dying in a plane accident, this irrational thinking is due to how often we read about the accidents.

Question 305

Tversky and Kahneman (1973) conducted a study looking at what?

Answer 305

Availability bias

Question 306

Describe the study done by Tversky and Kahneman (1973) on Availability Heuristics.

Answer 306

The researchers read out male and female names to participants, some of the names were famous and some were not. Participants were asked to estimate whether there was more male or female names in the list. ​ One group heard 19 famous male names and 20 non famous female names. ​ A second group heard 19 famous female names ad 20 non famous male names. ​ This was to counterbalance any gender effect ​ They found that 80% of participants judgements were incorrect, they had been influenced by the famous names being more available and therefore tipping the balance. ​

Question 307

How can Availability Bias be used to influence the economy?

Answer 307

Availability Bias refers to when the presence of something makes you more likely to make decisions reflecting it. As a result of this phenomenon, it is what makes the marketing process of "branding" work: A company makes a slogan or logo and shows it to you over and over again (done by many large brands, even if people already know them) until that company comes to your mind easily; this may then play into your decisions for any purchases related to the sector the company is in, as you may be more influenced to go to the brand you've seen again and again as it is constantly shown to you.

Question 308

What is Framing?

Answer 308

Framing refers to the way a choice is designed and presented - depending on how it is, it may influence choice.

Question 309

Describe the study done by Kahneman on Framing.

Answer 309

Peoples' decisions differ depending on whether a choice is presented as a gain or a loss. Participants were asked to choose between two treatments which were going to be used on 600 patients suffering from a deadly disease. Two groups were given the same facts about the success and failure of the treatment but the facts were framed differently. One was told that 400 would die, as treatment A The other was told 200 lives would be saved, as treatment B. 73% chose treatment A, 27% chose treatment B.

Question 310

What is a nudge?

Answer 310

A nudge is a technique used by choice architects in order to change someone’s behavior in a very easy and low-cost way, without reducing the number of choices available, and without removing freedom of choice. We often see it described as “non-enforced compliance”.

Question 311

Give a contextual example of a nudge in action.

Answer 311

One nudge shown was when individuals were given the 'default choice' changed - you automatically opt in for organ donation, and must go out of your way to opt out now; it used to be the other way round. This increased the amount of organ donors dramatically.

Question 312

Describe how psychology impacts the economy (6 marks).

Answer 312

Firstly, Kahneman developed Behavioral Economics, a section of economics that looked at psychology which had a large, positive impact on the economy. He developed Choice architecture, wherein the way a choice is presented or displayed in context changes the way an individual picks the choice. This can be seen in Framing, which refers to how the choice is written can influence how people choose. As shown here, in a study involving 2 conditions, both being told there are 600 people suffering from a deadly disease, they were also told that a therapy can be developed to help them, from which they had 2 options: A and B. They were told treatment B will mean 400 do not survive on average, and were told treatment A will mean 200 people survive on average. 73% picked A, and only 27% picked B, even though they were basically the same. This is an example of framing. Another type of behavioral bias demonstrated by Kahneman is Availability Heuristics. Availability Heuristics refers to when the occurrence of a past event generally causes individuals to overexaggerate the probability of it happening again, affecting their choices. For example, if a drought occurs in one year, and then goes away, people will exaggerate the probability of it happening next year and choices for purchasing (which is an economic activity) may increase in order to prepare, such as air conditioning. This can be seen in the economy because it is the phenomenon that makes branding extremely effective - large brands, such as McDonalds and Pepsi, still put an extremely high amount of money into advertising in western countries even though they are basically ubiquitous there, and this is due to the fact of brand awareness - constantly seeing the brand over and over again means that you are more likely to go to the area associated with the brand if you are ever interested in the sector in which their services or goods offer, which would be fast food for McDonalds.

Question 313

What is a type I error?

Answer 313

A Type I error refers to when you reject the null hypothesis when it's true.

Question 314

What is a type II error?

Answer 314

A type II error refers to when you reject your null hypothesis when it's actually true.

Question 315

An investigator carried out an experiment wherein one participant was allocated to group A and the other to group B. Before the experiment starts, each participant was given a questionnaire with closed questions that calculated a happiness score when participants finished it. The maximum happiness score is 6, here are the results gained: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/834865702355206194/unknown.png Draw an appropriate graphical display to show this data.

Answer 315

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/834865697095548928/IMG_20210422_195449.jpg?width=423&height=564 1 mark for each of the following: * display as a bar chart * both axes labelled correctly * an informative title with reference to the IV and DV * y axis has appropriate scaling * bars are separate * bars are plotted reasonably correctly.

Question 316

When can a Scattergram be used?

Answer 316

Scattergrams are used when you've got two different variables - you plot one variable along the bottom of the graph, and the second one up the side.

Question 317

In a Scattergram, is it okay if the x and y axis use different scales (this means one x axis goes by intervals of 5, the y axis goes by intervals of 10 on the same graph)?

Answer 317

Yes

Question 318

Gill is investigating the relationship between height and scores on a depression index: Construct a scattergram showing the results on the table. Describe the type and strength of the correlation.

Answer 318

https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/834891787972771840/IMG_20210422_214052.jpg?width=423&height=564 Weak, Positive

Question 319

Describe how to conduct a content analysis.

Answer 319

Data is collected Researcher reads through and examines the data to make sure they are familiar of it and understanding of the data The researcher identifies coding units, which is when the types of data, or how they are presented, are divided into different categories which can be tallied structurally. Data is analyzed by applying the coding units. A tally is made of the number of times a coding unit appears.

Question 320

Participants in an experiment were shown a film of a robbery. The participants were then divided into two groups. One group was interviewed using a standard interview technique and the other group was interviewed using the cognitive interview technique. All participants were then given an ‘accuracy score’ (out of 20) based on how closely their recall matched the events in the film (20 = completely accurate, 0 = not at all accurate). The experiment used an independent groups design. Explain how this study could have been modified by using a matched pairs design.

Answer 320

the researcher needs to ensure that the two groups are matched for key variables: * example of at least one key variable – any that might reasonably be expected to affect memory in this situation, eg eyesight, age, intelligence * all participants should be pre-tested / assessed for the key variable / variables * for each person in one condition, the researcher should assign a ‘matched’ person in the other condition.

Question 321

Studies of attachment often involve observation of interactions between mother and baby pairs like Tasneem and Aisha. Researchers sometimes write down everything that happens as it takes place, including their own interpretation of the events. Explain 4 reasons why such observational research might be refined through the use of behavioral categories.

Answer 321

behavioral categories allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings: * using categories provides clear focus for the researcher * categorization enables proposal of a testable hypothesis * categories allow for more objective / scientific data recording * use of categories should result in greater reliability * categories provide data that is easier to quantify / analyze * contrast with method described in the stem (own interpretation is too subjective/opinion-based).

Question 322

Read the item and then answer the questions that follow: A psychologist wanted to see if creativity is affected by the presence of other people. To test this he arranged for 30 people to participate in a study that involved generating ideas for raising funds for a local youth club. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: Condition A: there were 15 participants in this condition. Each participant was placed separately in a room and was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. The participant was told to write down his or her ideas and these were collected in by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. Condition B: there were 15 participants in this condition. The participants were randomly allocated to 5 groups of equal size. Each group was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. Each group was told to write down their ideas and these were collected by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. The psychologist counted the number of ideas generated by the participants in both conditions and calculated the total number of ideas for each condition. Identify the experimental design used in this study and outline one advantage of this experimental design. Describe one other experimental design that researchers use in psychology.

Answer 322

Independent Groups Design An independent groups design is extremely useful for eliminating the participant variable known as order effects; the participants only have to do a task once. Another experimental design that researchers use in psychology often is the repeated measures design. It is when the participants in the experiment participate in both conditions, rather than only one of them - this means they may do the same task twice.

Question 323

Read the item and then answer the question that follows: A psychologist wanted to see if creativity is affected by the presence of other people. To test this he arranged for 30 people to participate in a study that involved generating ideas for raising funds for a local youth club. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: Condition A: there were 15 participants in this condition. Each participant was placed separately in a room and was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. The participant was told to write down his or her ideas and these were collected in by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. Condition B: there were 15 participants in this condition. The participants were randomly allocated to 5 groups of equal size. Each group was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. Each group was told to write down their ideas and these were collected by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. The psychologist counted the number of ideas generated by the participants in both conditions and calculated the total number of ideas for each condition. Apart from using random allocation, suggest one way in which the psychologist might have improved this study by controlling for the effects of extraneous variables. Justify your answer.

Answer 323

These are some likely suggestions: * testing all participants in the same room * making sure that all participants hear the same instructions * ensuring that all participants are tested by the same researcher For the justification, explain why it should happen: If we were to test all participants in the same room, we can ensure that the environment the study was conducted in did not influence the results as it was kept constant between all participants.

Question 324

Read the item and then answer the question that follows: A psychologist wanted to see if creativity is affected by the presence of other people. To test this he arranged for 30 people to participate in a study that involved generating ideas for raising funds for a local youth club. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: Condition A: there were 15 participants in this condition. Each participant was placed separately in a room and was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. The participant was told to write down his or her ideas and these were collected in by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. Condition B: there were 15 participants in this condition. The participants were randomly allocated to 5 groups of equal size. Each group was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. Each group was told to write down their ideas and these were collected by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. The psychologist counted the number of ideas generated by the participants in both conditions and calculated the total number of ideas for each condition. Describe a suitable hypothesis for this investigation.

Answer 324

There is no significant difference in the number of ideas generated when participants work alone compared to when they work in groups. Accept One or Two Tailed or Null

Question 325

Read the item and then answer the question that follows: A psychologist wanted to see if creativity is affected by the presence of other people. To test this he arranged for 30 people to participate in a study that involved generating ideas for raising funds for a local youth club. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: Condition A: there were 15 participants in this condition. Each participant was placed separately in a room and was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. The participant was told to write down his or her ideas and these were collected in by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. Condition B: there were 15 participants in this condition. The participants were randomly allocated to 5 groups of equal size. Each group was given 40 minutes to think of as many ideas as possible for raising funds for a local youth club. Each group was told to write down their ideas and these were collected by the psychologist at the end of the 40 minutes. The psychologist counted the number of ideas generated by the participants in both conditions and calculated the total number of ideas for each condition. From the information given in the description, calculate the number of participants in each group in Condition B.

Answer 325

15/5 = 3

Question 326

The psychologist noticed that the number of ideas generated by each of the individual participants in Condition A varied enormously whereas there was little variation in performance between the 5 groups in Condition B. He decided to calculate a measure of dispersion for each condition. Name a measure of dispersion the psychologist could use (give ONE answer only) The psychologist uses the measure of dispersion you have named in your answer to question (f). State how the result for each condition would differ.

Answer 326

Range or Standard Deviation - Firstly, the result for the Range in condition A would be higher than in condition B. If you did the Standard Deviation, the result for the SD in condition A would be higher than in condition B.

Question 327

Explain how a psychologist can use random allocation to assign 15 participants into 5 different groups.

Answer 327

Firstly, put the name of each participant on a piece of paper, cut it to show each name and place all names in a hat. Secondly, because 15 divided by 5 is 3, select 3 names out the hat - you don't know what you'll get, so it's random allocation. These 3 names will make up your first group. Repeat this process 4 more times, wherein you will have 5 groups, each with 3 people in.

Question 328

A researcher wanted to see whether cognitive behavior therapy was an effective treatment for depression. Twenty depressed patients who had all recently completed a course of cognitive behavior therapy were involved in the investigation. From their employment records, the researcher kept a record of the number of absences from work each patient had in the year following their treatment. This was compared with the number of absences from work each patient had in the year prior to their treatment. Those patients who had fewer absences from work in the year following their treatment than in the year prior to their treatment were classified as ‘improved’ (+). Those patients who had more absences were classified as ‘deteriorated’ (-). Those patients who had the same number of absences were classified as ‘neither’ (0). The results of the investigation are included in Table 1 below: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/835232525059096576/unknown.png?width=393&height=564 The researcher decided to use the sign test to analyze the data. Explain two factors that the researcher had to take into account when deciding to use the sign test. Refer to the investigation above in your answer. Calculate the sign test value of s for the data in Table 1. Explain how you reached your answer.

Answer 328

Their experiment must be a test of difference, as you are testing for differences between two different variables affect on the number of absences to determine a '+' or the '-' necessary for carrying out the test. Their experiment must use nominal/categorical data - this is shown when the participants were labelled 'deteriorated', 'neither', or 'improved'. The test must be related. This means it is not independent groups, and this is true as the test is repeated measures as the same patients' work records are compared before and after treatment; both conditions. Value of s, also known as the observational value, is 5. This is due to the fact that we look for the least occurring sign of difference, these are + or -, not neither, as that suggests no difference, thus we ignore it, and + has been counted 12 times, and this is more than - and so the observational value is the amount of the '-' sign, being 5.

Question 329

A researcher wanted to see whether cognitive behavior therapy was an effective treatment for depression. Twenty depressed patients who had all recently completed a course of cognitive behavior therapy were involved in the investigation. From their employment records, the researcher kept a record of the number of absences from work each patient had in the year following their treatment. This was compared with the number of absences from work each patient had in the year prior to their treatment. Those patients who had fewer absences from work in the year following their treatment than in the year prior to their treatment were classified as ‘improved’ (+). Those patients who had more absences were classified as ‘deteriorated’ (-). Those patients who had the same number of absences were classified as ‘neither’ (0). The results of the investigation are included in Table 1 below: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/835232525059096576/unknown.png?width=393&height=564 Here is the critical value table: https://media.discordapp.net/attachments/352951793187029005/835233180461694976/unknown.png With reference to the critical values in Table 2, explain whether or not the value of s that you calculated in response to question (b) is significant at the 0.05 level for a two tailed test.

Answer 329

Firstly, the value of n is 17 as we look for all participants that have a difference. This is 17 (20 - 3). As a result of this, the critical value is 4 The observational value, being 5, is higher than the critical value, thus the data is not significant, and this means that the results of the experiment are likely to be 'fluked' - due to chance.