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Psych - A2 & AS > Research methods A2 > Flashcards

Research methods A2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define content analysis

A

The systematic research technique in which qualitative data is analyzed to produce quantitative results, through the use of coding systems or themes to categorize behavior.

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2
Q

State two advantages of content analysis.

A
  1. Converts qualitative data to quantitative data

2. Reliable way to analyse qualitative data - coding units are objective

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3
Q

State two disadvantages of content analysis.

A
  1. Causality can’t be established - just describes

2. Can’t show deeper meaning or explanation for data patterns

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4
Q

How does thematic analysis differ from content analysis?

A

Thematic analysis involves the re-analyzing of data to identify broader patterns of meaning (themes)

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5
Q

Define thematic analysis.

A

A qualitative approach to content analysis, involves identifying prominent, recurring themes which are usually more descriptive and general than coding categories

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6
Q

Define reliability

A

How consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are

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7
Q

Define internal validity

A

The extent to which a test is investigating the true effect of the IV on the DV

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8
Q

Define concurrent validity

A

Measurement of whether the results of the new test match the results of a similar, but older test

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9
Q

Define face validity

A

Measurement of whether the test or measuring instrument is measuring what it should

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10
Q

Define external validity

A

The extent to which results can be generalised to other settings/people/time eras (factors outside the research setting)

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11
Q

Define coding

A

The stage of quantitative content analysis in which the communication is analyzed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories

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12
Q

Define test-retest

A

When the observation is repeated and the results are compared with the first observation - they should produce a correlation coefficient of +0.8 or more

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13
Q

What is a pilot study? What is it’s purpose?

A

When a small trial run of the observation is run before the main study is carried out.
They ensure the procedures and instruments used improve precision of results e.g.standardised instructions, debriefing, and operationalisation. It minimises human error and variation.

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14
Q

Define inter-observer reliability.

A

More than one psychologist/observer observes the behavior separately. The results are compared to obtain a correlation coefficient of +0.8 or more

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15
Q

Define inter-researcher reliability

A

More than one psychologist/researcher conducts an interview with the pps - act in similar and consistent ways to make it reliable. Results are compared to gain correlation coefficient of +0.8 or more

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16
Q

How can reliability be improved?

A

Observation:

  1. Operationalise categories
  2. Give more training and practice to observers

Self-report:
1. Make sure the question isn’t ambiguous - rewrite

Experiments:
1. Standardised instructions

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17
Q

What factors could reduce internal validity?

A
  1. Investigator effects
  2. Demand characteristics
  3. Confounding variables
  4. Social desirability bias
  5. Lack of operationalisation
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18
Q

How could internal validity be assessed?

A
  1. Concurrent validity

2. Face validity

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19
Q

How could internal validity (concurrent and face) be improved?

A

Concurrent:
Remove irrelevant/ambiguous questions

Face:
Getting an expert to examine the questions on the questionnaire - rewrite any ambiguous questions

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20
Q

How can you reduce investigator effects to improve internal validity?

A
  1. Get rid of psychologist completely

2. Use multiple researchers

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21
Q

How can you reduce demand characteristics to improve internal validity?

A

Single/Double blind study

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22
Q

How can you reduce confounding variables to improve internal validity?

A

Carry the experiment out in a controlled environment (lab study)

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23
Q

Define temporal validity

A

Whether the findings are true over a period of time and can be generalised to other time eras

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24
Q

How can external validity be assessed?

A

1) Meta analysis - comparison of findings of different research studies studying the same hypothesis
2) Check environment - should be naturalistic
3) Assess how the dependent variable is measured - high mundane realism
4) Assess natural behaviour of pps

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25
Q

How can external validity be improved?

A
  1. Reduce demand characteristics through double/single blind study
  2. Carry out in naturalistic setting e.g. Field experiment, covert experiment
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26
Q

Define a paradigm

A

A shared set of assumptions and agreed methods that are found within scientific disciplines

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27
Q

Why is Psychology seen as a ‘pre-science’?

A

There are too many internal disagreements and conflicting approaches, but it does have some scientific qualities

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28
Q

What are key scientific features?

A

1) Systematic, controlled approach
2) Use of experiments and observational studies
3) Falsifiability
4) Objectivity
5) Replicability

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29
Q

Define empirical methods

A

A method of gaining knowledge that relies on direct observations or testing. This can help separate unfounded beliefs from the real truth. Theory cannot be scientific unless tested empirically

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30
Q

Define a paradigm shift

A

The result of a scientific revolution. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory of a scientific discipline occurs, causing a paradigm shift.

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31
Q

Describe the stages of a paradigm shift.

A

1) One theory remains dominant. Researchers begin to question the theory and have contradictory research.
2) Evidence accumulates - can’t ignore
3) Present paradigm overthrown - new one established

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32
Q

How do paradigm shifts help science?

A

Allows for rapid progress to be made - scientific revolution

33
Q

Define objectivity.

A

Dealing with facts in a way that is unaffected by beliefs, opinions, feelings or expectations

34
Q

Define replicability.

A

The extent to which the findings of research can be repeated in different contexts and circumstances

35
Q

Why is replicability important?

A
  1. Guards against scientific fraud
  2. Check to see if results were a “one off”
  3. Check for reliability
  4. Check for validity
36
Q

Define falsifiability.

A

The notion that scientific theories can potentially be disproved by evidence. Refers to proving a hypothesis wrong.

37
Q

Why is falsifiability important?

A

It’s the only way to be certain of a theory - have to be able to conduct tests to try and prove a theory wrong, just one contradictory piece of evidence can refute said theory

38
Q

What is a limitation of psychology in regards to objectivity?

A
  1. It’s humans studying humans - difficult to study without being biased
  2. Psychologists from different approaches may examine in different ways e.g behaviourist wouldn’t instinctively look for cognitive elements - biased
39
Q

What is a limitation in regards to falsifiability?

A

Many of the theories can’t be disproved, so can’t be certainly true e.g. Psychodynamic approach - Id, ego, superego

40
Q

What are the stages in deductive reasoning?

A
  1. Propose theory
  2. Develop hypothesis
  3. Test theory
  4. Conclude
41
Q

What are the stages in inductive reasoning?

A
  1. Observe instances in environment
  2. Develop hypothesis
  3. Test hypothesis
  4. Conclude
  5. Devise theory
42
Q

Define ‘level of statistical significance’.

A

The level at which the decision is made to reject the null hypothesis and accept the experimental

43
Q

Define significance

A

How sure we can be that the IV is having an effect on the DV and isn’t due to chance. Shows that there’s a real difference between the sets of data

44
Q

Define probability

A

A numerical measure that determines the extent to which our results are likely due to chance or whether there’s a real difference between the experimental and control conditions

45
Q

What is the conventional significance level?

A

5% (p<0.05)

46
Q

Why is 5% significance used?

A
  1. Not too lenient or strict

2. Minimises chance of type 1 or type 2 error

47
Q

When would a 1% significance level be used?

A

When research findings are critical and important e.g drug testing

48
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

False positive.
Null hypothesis is rejected even though it should’ve been accepted. There is no real difference between the two variables.

49
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

False negative.

Null hypothesis should’ve been rejected instead of accepted. There is a real difference between the two variables.

50
Q

State three advantages of using correlations.

A
  1. Can establish strength of relationship between two variables
  2. Can investigate variables that couldn’t be manipulated experimentally
  3. Predictions can be made of one of the variables based on results
51
Q

State three disadvantages of using correlations.

A
  1. Cannot determine cause and effect
  2. May be a confounding that is influencing results
  3. Only measure linear relationships - doesn’t detect curvilinear relationships (bell-curve)
52
Q

Describe nominal data

A

Data consisting of numbers of pps falling into different categories - can’t be placed in both categories

53
Q

Describe ordinal data

A

Data that can be ranked from highest to lowest (or vice verse) - can be unequal intervals

54
Q

Describe interval data

A

Data that has fixed and even intervals

55
Q

How do parametric tests differ to non-parametric tests?

A

Parametric tests rely on data collected rather than the order of the data. Parametric tests are more likely to detect if data is significant or not.

56
Q

What three factors allow conduction of a parametric test?

A
  1. Level of measurement is INTERVAL
  2. Data from normal distribution curve
  3. Data has similar variance/spread of scores
57
Q

What factors help to choose the correct statistical test?

A
  1. Test of difference, correlation or association?
  2. What design is used?
  3. What level of measurement is used?
  4. Is the test non parametric or parametric?
58
Q

If testing for a correlation what statistical tests should be used?

A
  1. Spearman’s Rho

2. Pearson’s R

59
Q

If testing for a difference which statistical tests should be used?

A
  1. Mann Whitney
  2. Chi-Squared
  3. Wilcoxon
  4. Unrelated T-test
  5. Related T-test
60
Q

If testing for an association which statistical test is used?

A

Chi-squared

61
Q

In which two instances is chi-squared used?

A
  1. Non Parametric - Nominal data - Test of Difference - Independent measures
  2. Non Parametric - Nominal data - Test of Association
62
Q

In which instance is the sign test used?

A

Non Parametric - Nominal - Test of Difference - Repeated measures/Matched pair

63
Q

In which instance is Mann Whitney used?

A

Non Parametric - Ordinal - Test of difference - Independent measures

64
Q

In which instance is Wilcoxon used?

A

Non Parametric - Ordinal - Test Of Difference - Repeated Measures/Matched pair

65
Q

In which instance is Spearman’s rho used?

A

Non-Parametric - Ordinal - Test of correlation

66
Q

In which instance is Unrelated T-test used?

A

Parametric - Interval - Test of difference - Independent measures

67
Q

In which instance is Related T-test used?

A

Parametric - Interval - Test of Difference - Repeated measures/Matched pair

68
Q

In which instance is Pearson’s R used?

A

Parametric - Interval - Test of Correlation

69
Q

An investigation into whether psychology students or maths students revise differently occurs. They must study only one of the subjects. What’s the level of measurement, and statistical test used?

A

Nominal data

Chi-squared

70
Q

Define the critical value.

A

A numerical value found in the statistical tables that helps determine the significance of the results

71
Q

What does Na stand for in the Mann Whitney test?

A

Number of pps in smaller sample

72
Q

What does Nb stand for in the Mann Whitney test?

A

Number of pps in larger sample

73
Q

What does T stand for in the Mann Whitney test?

A

Sum of the ranks in the smaller sample

74
Q

Define ‘degrees of freedom’

A

The number of values that are free to vary

75
Q

What are the steps to working out the results in a Wilcoxon test?

A
  1. Calculate sum of positive ranks

2. Calculate sum of negative ranks

76
Q

What does T stand for in the Wilcoxon statistical test?

A

The smaller value

77
Q

In which statistical test is ‘N-1’ used?

A

Related T-test

78
Q

In which statistical test is ‘N-2’ used?

A

Unrelated T-test

Psych - A2 & AS (11 decks)

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