Research Methods and Stats

Question 1

A great deal of power that comes from the use of statistical knowledge to prove a point comes from

Answer 1

The fact that much of the public is under-educated on what these figures and ratios mean.

Question 2

Statistics can act as a

Answer 2

subjective mechanism of social control when decisions of researchers are made in error

Question 3

Conceptualization

Answer 3

identifying what we mean when using specific terms/concepts

Question 4

Standardization of data

Answer 4

Presenting data in a way that allows comparison of different measures

Question 5

Controversies over Counting Crime

Answer 5

Criminologists have developed theories and conducted research using crime statistics that may not be entirely valid or reliable.

Statistics and theories of crime can be misused. In sum, we need to critically analyze crime statistics for their validity and reliability.

Question 6

Surveys

Answer 6

series of closed-ended questions designed to focus the respondents’ answers in a comparable manner

Question 7

A deductive approach

Answer 7

• Instrument development e.g. questionnaire, interview schedules
• May be conducted in person, via the telephone, via mail

Question 8

Every time a survey is completed, the information is contributed toward:

Answer 8

datasets used by stakeholders to produce knowledge about the public

Question 9

Likert-style scaling

Answer 9

reading a proposition paired with a ranking system that uses a scale of some sort

Question 10

Good survey questions avoid:

Answer 10

• Jargon or abbreviations
• Ambiguity
• Emotional language
• Double-barreled questions
• Leading questions
• Questions that are beyond respondents’ capabilities
• False premises
• Asking about future intentions
• Double negatives

Question 11

Validity

Answer 11

Ability of research tools to effectively represent the attitudes and ideas that they are meant to measure

Question 12

8 separate tests of validity:

Answer 12

1. Face
2. Content
3. Criterion
4. Concurrent
5. Predictive
6. Construct
7. Convergent
8. Discriminant

Question 13

Inferential limitation

Answer 13

The extent to which numerically derived statistics can be used to make inferences on a broader population

Question 14

Construct Validity

Answer 14

A measure of how well a series of questions can be used to make inferences about a given topic
- Jeopardized when researchers either use ineffective measures for their identified trait or develop constructs that identify poorly defined traits

Question 15

Content Validity

Answer 15

A measure of how well a series of questions represents the concept they are designed to test

• Underlying theory is that good research replicates the successes of the past and discards the failures, creating an environment of continual improvement
• Above assumption becomes increasingly difficult to ascertain with deeper consideration of the meaning of expertise

Question 16

Likert Scale

Answer 16

Asks respondents to report on the intensity of different items through the use of standard response categories (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
- PRoduces responses that can lead to an average score on the concept

Question 17

Sampling

Answer 17

• Process of selection from the population

- Samples represent the population

Question 18

Sampling bias

Answer 18

A critique of statistical research based on how well a sample depicts the population it is meant to represent -> the methods to locate and contact would-be survey respondents are flawed based on the way the survey is administered.

Question 19

Haphazard sampling

Answer 19

techniques that intentionally employ non-random sampling strategies
Tactics: convenience and purposive samples

Question 20

Convenience Sampling

Answer 20

Collecting responses from a group of people who are readily available to the researcher (i.e public place as people walk by)

Question 21

Purposive Sampling

Answer 21

Seeks out individuals who represent a specific group within the population

Question 22

Non-probability sampling

Answer 22

• Haphazard/Convenience sampling
• Quota sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling

Question 23

Non-probability: Haphazard/Convenience Sampling

Answer 23

• Selecting convenient cases

- Not random, may misrepresent the population

Question 24

Non-probability: Quota Sampling

Answer 24

• Selecting a certain proportion of a defined group from the population
• Can ensure that certain characteristics are represented

Question 25

Non-probability: Purposive Sampling

Answer 25

- Selecting cases based on the expert opinion of who needs to be selected - Unique cases - Specialized populations - In-depth investigations

Question 26

Non-probability: Snowball Sampling

Answer 26

- Selecting cases that are linked together | - Used to target interconnected networks

Question 27

Big Data

Answer 27

Collection and analysis of personal information produced during our interactions with modern technology (automated, digital process)

Question 28

Problems with Big Data

Answer 28

- Latent Bias | - Representativeness

Question 29

Latent Bias

Answer 29

- Exclusion of marginalized populations | - Underlying computational models reflect the inherent bias of their creators, intentionally held or not

Question 30

Representativeness

Answer 30

Digital invisibility: lack of access to internet and devices due to financial costs, affecting the accuracy of big data

Question 31

Representing Unheard Voices

Answer 31

Statistical knowledge paired with opportunities to share the experiences of marginalized communities can be a valuable tool for overcoming systemic mechanisms of exclusion

Question 32

Mixed-methods Research

Answer 32

- Approach to research that unites the strengths of qualitative and quantitative information gathering

Question 33

Qualitative Data Analysis

Answer 33

“The non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships.” - Ultimate goal is to identify patterns - Involves some form of inductive reasoning

Question 34

Finding patterns

Answer 34

- When we are looking for patterns we are concerned with similarities and differences in what we observe - The similarities represent the patterns of interactions and events that are common to the phenomenon being studied - The differences are important in understanding what characteristics are common among those who are different

Question 35

Grounded Theory

Answer 35

An inductive approach to research in which theories are generated from an examination of data, through the constant comparing of unfolding observations - Theories are comprised of well-defined categories that are developed based on the observations made about the relationships that exist as a part of some social phenomenon - Conceptualization involves developing or refining concepts that are based on the data observed

Question 36

Ethnography/Participant Observation

Answer 36

Refers to a report of social life that focuses on detail and rich idiographic account - Data collected in the natural setting (naturalism) - Involved naturalistic and holistic understandings of social reality

Question 37

Case Study

Answer 37

A focused, details investigation of a single instance of some social phenomenon