Research Methods (Chapter 2)

Question 1

What are the steps in the Scientific Method?

Answer 1

1) Identify the question of interest
2) Gather data, and form the hypothesis
3) Test the hypothesis
4) Analyze data, draw tentative conclusions and report findings
5) Build a body of knowledge, ask further questions

Question 2

What is a Hypothesis?

Answer 2

Specific prediction about phenomenon, often phrased as an if…then… statement

Question 3

What is a Theory?

Answer 3

Set of formal statements to explain why/how events/phenomena are related.

It is more comprehensive than a hypothesis, and is formed when evidence accumulates that support the statements

May be altered with new evidence

Question 4

What is Hindsight, and what are some of the problems inherent within it?

Answer 4

The concept that “Oh, we knew that all along”. Looking back, the answer is obvious.

Problems are that past events are interpreted differently with opposing explanations, by different people. How can we tell which explanation is correct?

Question 5

What makes a good Theory?

Answer 5

Good theories are testable, and supported by evidence.

Question 6

What is the Law of Parsimony?

Answer 6

If two theories explain the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler explanation is preferred

Question 7

What are Variables?

Answer 7

Anything that varies within and between people.

Many variables are not observable, and can mean different things to different people.

Question 8

Operational Definition

Answer 8

Defines the variables being tested in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it.

Or, “for the purposes of this experiment, we are assuming that variable x is understood as being _____”

Question 9

What are four ways to measure variables?

Answer 9

1) Self-Report
2) Measure Overt Behaviour
3) Psychological Tests
4) Physiological Measures

Question 10

What is a self report, and what are some problems with it?

Answer 10

Have people give reports on their own behaviour through interviews, questionnaires or surveys.

Accuracy depends on honesty, and can be affected by Social Desirability

Question 11

What is Social Desirability?

Answer 11

When a test participant responds in ways that they think they should respond, in order to be socially acceptable, and not necessarily how they actually feel.

Question 12

What are some ways to Measure Overt Behaviour?

Answer 12

Study reaction time

Coding: develop categories/labels for specific behaviours

Unobtrusive Measures: Minimizes social desiribility, but the mere fact that one is being observed may influence behaviour

Archival Measures: Use existing data

Question 13

What are Psychological Tests?

Answer 13

Tests developed by psychologists to measure specific constructs and variables

Question 14

What are some Physiological Measures, and the problems inherent?

Answer 14

Blood tests, heart rate, brain activity

Problem is, we don’t always know what those variables mean.

Question 15

What are the Three Methods of Research?

Answer 15

1) Descriptive Research: Aims to describe behaviour
2) Correlational Research: Helps to predict behaviour
3) Experimental Research: Helps to predict and influence behaviour

Question 16

What is a Case Study?

Answer 16

In-depth analysis on single group or event.
Collects data through observations, tests, interviews, etc.
Pros: Allows for in-depth info on rare phenomena, can lead to new research hypothesis
Cons: Cannot determine Cause/Effect, Low generalizability, can suffer from observer bias
(Descriptive Research)

Question 17

What is Naturalistic Observation?

Answer 17

Passive observation of behaviour, without interference
Pros: Can yield in-depth information
Cons: Cannot determine Cause/Effect, observation may influence subject’s behaviour

Question 18

Survey Population

Answer 18

All individuals within group of interest

Question 19

Survey Sample

Answer 19

Subset of population. Must be representative of the whole population to retain validity

Question 20

What is a Survey?

Answer 20

Questionnaire given to wide group of people
Pros: Efficient way to get large amounts of information
Cons: No Cause/Effect; relies on self-report; if not representative, the conclusions are inaccurate.

Question 21

What are Random anStratified Sampling?

Answer 21

Random Sampling: Subjects chosen at random, each member of the population has equal chance of being selected

Stratified Sampling: Select sample after dividing up the population based on important characteristics (more representative)

Question 22

Correlational Research

Answer 22

Measurements of associations between naturally occurring variables and events.

Variables are measured, but not manipulated

Correlation does NOT prove causation, it merely states that there IS a relationship, and may allow for predictions to be made

Question 23

Simple Correlational Study

Answer 23

1) Measure variable x
2) Measure variable y
3) Using statistics, determine if x and y are related

Question 24

What is the Correlational Coefficient?

Answer 24

A statistic that indicates the direction and strength of relationship between two variables

Positive: If variable x increases, so does variable y
Negative: If variable x increases, variable y decreases
Range: From -1.00 to +1.00

Question 25

Experimental Research

Answer 25

Examines cause and effect through three components: 1) One (or more) variable that is manipulated or controlled 2) Researcher measures if manipulation influenced other variables 3) Extraneous variables that might influence results are controlled

Question 26

Explain process of Experimental Research

Answer 26

1) Start with equivalent groups of participants 2) Treatment for each group is completely identical, except for variable of interest 3) Manipulate variable of Interest 4) Measure Group's response

Question 27

What are Independent and Dependent Variables in Experimental Research?

Answer 27

Independent Variable (IV): The variable being manipulated or controlled Dependent Variable (DV): Variables expected to be influenced by the Independent Variable

Question 28

What are Experimental and Control Groups?

Answer 28

Experimental Group: Group of participants who receive some level of IV; there must be a minimum of two levels of IV Control Group: Does not receive IV, or received Level 0 of IV

Question 29

Simple Experimental Designs

Answer 29

Between Groups: Each group has different (but matched) participants. Using random assignment can balance uncontrollable factors Repeated Measures: Each participant exposed to al levels of IV (take part in both Experimental and Control Groups). Use of counterbalancing (the order in which participants are exposed to each level of IV varies) ensures that no condition has advantage of another

Question 30

Validity

Answer 30

How well does the experiment actually test what it intends to?

Question 31

Internal Validity

Answer 31

The degree that an experiment supports clear causal conclusions (does it actually work?) Can be Impacted by: 1) Compounding Variables: unexpected/unaccounted for variables that influence result 2) Placebo Effect: 3) Experimenter Expectation: Researchers can unintentionally influence participants' to respond in ways that are not consistent with the hypothesis (Double-blind procedure can help solve this)

Question 32

External Validity

Answer 32

The degree that the results can be generalized to other populations (does it work elsewhere?) Increased through repetition Use of Meta-Analysis (statistical procedure combining results of many replicated and related studies) can help prove validity

Question 33

Incomplete Disclosure and Deception

Answer 33

Highly controversial (Stanford prison experiment, or Milford's shock-teaching) Participants must be debriefed following experiment, or it violates the notion of informed consent. Only permitted when no alternative is feasible, and benefits outweigh the risks Has become less common in recent years

Question 34

CPA Code of Ethics

Answer 34

Protect/Promote welfare of participant Avoid doing harm Not to carry out studies unless probably benefit is proportionally greater than risk Provide informed consent Ensure coercion was not used to acquire consent Ensure privacy and confidentiality