Research Methods - education Flashcards

Question

what do theoretical issues mean

Answer 1

Theoretical issues refer to the two contrasting research traditions/approaches within sociology. These approaches are often referred to as positivism and interpretivism. These are based on a very different view and perspective of how society works, what drives our behaviour and how research should be conducted. The theoretical approach or perspective adopted by the sociologist has a significant impact on the type of research and research methods/sociologists prefer to use. - POSITIVISTS - INTERPRETIVISTS

Answer 2

Positivists: - see sociology as a science - take a 'top down approach' to society - seek to measure the impact of society on behaviour - seek to discover patterns of behaviour - value detached objective data - facts + info - adopt a macro level of analysis - large scale study - structures + systems of society - adopt a macro level of analysis - prefer quantitative research methods and data

Answer 3

Interpretivists: - reject the view that sociology is a science - take a bottom-up approach (interactionists) - seek to understand social actors meanings - seek to interpret and understand behaviour - recognise the value of subjective and in depth data (opinion/beliefs) - adopt a micro level of analysis - small scale study - people/interviews - prefer qualitative research methods and data

Answer 4

Loud Humphreys (1970) research into 'the tearoom trade'

Answer 5

Laud Humphreys research 'the tearoom trade' - In the research, Humphrey observed gay sexual encounters in public toilets. He wished (a) to explain how such encounters and the social structure they required, worked; and (b) to investigate the rules and meanings attached to the encounters by the participants. Humphrey did this research by being engaged in covert participant observation and follow up interviews. Humphreys became part of the scene in Chicago by visiting gay bars and became an accepted part of the scene. For his CPO research, he adopted the role of ‘watch-queen’ – meaning a lookout, but also someone who got satisfaction from watching others engage in sex. Publication of his study attracted controversy. He noted 134 car number plates of cars regularly parked near the public toilets, and using contacts with the police forces, obtained the addresses of the owners. Having changed his appearance, he called on 100 people in the guise of a health survey to conduct further research a year later

Answer 6

May (1993) recounts the details of the response to this research: The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’. On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.

Answer 7

The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’.

Answer 8

On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.

Answer 9

1 - choosing a topic 2 - formulating an aim or hypothesis 3 - operationalising concepts 4 - the pilot study 5 - Sampling 6 - Sampling techniques

Answer 10

CHOOSING A TOPIC: Sociologists need to decide what topic they wish to study. This will be guided by funding bodies, location, societal values, topics of contemporary significance e.g. Brexit, covid-19 (any topics that are current issues), personal interests, sociologists perspective e.g. feminists will focus their topics on gender inequality or domestic violence etc.

Answer 11

FORMULATING AN AIM OR HYPOTHESIS: Most research either has a general aim or specific hypothesis to test. An aim identifies what the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research e.g. the research reasons for educational underachievement. Much research is designed to test a specific hypothesis: Hypothesis is a predictive statement, prediction, explanation, theory that can be challenged to be either true or false. e.g. material deprivation leads to educational underachievement.

Answer 12

The advantage of hypothesis is that it gives direction to research and focus to the questions to be asked. Creating a hypothesis requires the sociologist to think up a possible explanation and often they do this by drawing on previous research that has been conducted on the topic, but it could come from anywhere. If the evidence gathered shows that the hypothesis is false, then it must be discarded and attention could be directed to new directions for research.

Answer 13

OPERATIONALISING CONCEPTS: operationalising concepts refers to sociologists testing their hypothesis 'material deprivation leads to educational underachievement'. (material deprivation being the independent variable e.g. the cause which can lead to a consequence whereas educational underachievement is the dependent variable e.g. the effect which must be clarified and defined). Abstract ideas included within the hypothesis must be defined and clarified in order to ensure that they can be measured (operationalised) - measurement of underachievement and material deprivation to define and clarify/clear. Once the sociologist has a working or 'operational' definition of the concept, they can then write questions that measure it. Therefore, before research starts, sociological ideas must be defined in a way that can be measured

Answer 14

THE PILOT STUDY: Once a hypothesis has been designed and key concepts operationalised, the next stage is to produce a pilot study. A pilot study is a draft/smaller scale, preliminary trial study designed to test the research design e.g. the questions and problems with research. After carrying out the pilot study, it should be possible to finalise

Answer 15

SAMPLING: Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research, they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population: The target/research population refers to the people, a social group or the community who are relevant to the research/study and the group that will be targeted in the study. For practical reasons, sociological research cannot involve the entire relevant population, therefore sociologists choose a sample: A smaller sub-group drawn from the larger research group, target population Each individual member of the sample is a sampling unit. Sociologists often aim to produce generalisations that apply to all cases of the topic and people they are researching, not just those in those involved in the study. The basic purpose of sampling is to ensure that those people selected for the sample are representative of the larger target/research population. If the sample is representative, generalisations can be made to cover the entire target/research population: sociologists who engage in a macro level analysis, want to generalise the findings of their research to the entire target/research population/ they can only do this if their sample is typical / a cross - section of the population they are studying. In some cases, a sociologist may be able to select their sample from a sampling frame: A database/list of all members of the research / target population e.g the school

Answer 16

Representative sampling: Sociologists employ various sampling techniques to gain a representative sample of the research population: - Random sampling - Quasi-random/systematic sampling - stratified random sampling - quota sampling

Answer 17

``` Random sampling refers to where a sample is selected purely by chance and everyone has an equal chance of being selected, e.g. names may be drawn out of a hat.. A large enough random sample should reflect the characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, class etc.) of the whole research population. However, not all random samples are large enough to ensure representativeness. ```

Answer 18

Quasi-random/systematic sampling is where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected.

Answer 19

stratified random sampling is where the researcher first breaks down (stratifies) the population in the sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc. The sample is then created in the same proportions, e.g. if 20% of the population are U18, 20% of the sample would be U18

Answer 20

Quota sampling is where the population is stratified as above, and then each is given a quota of say, 20 females and 20 males, which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics. The interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled.

Answer 21

For theoretical and practical reasons, not all studies use representative sampling techniques: Even where it is possible to create a representative sample, some sociologists may choose not to do so, because of their theoretical/methodological perspective. Interpretivists engage in a micro level of analysis as they are more concerned with gaining a valid understanding of behaviour than to discover general laws of behaviour. Therefore, they often use non-representative samples. non-representative samples include snowball sampling and opportunity sampling

Answer 22

There are several practical reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample: (a) The social characteristics of the research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross-section of it; (b) It may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population; (c) Potential respondents may refuse to participate. Where it is not possible to obtain a representative sample, sociologists sometimes use snowball or opportunity samples:

Answer 23

Snowball sampling involves collecting a sample by contacting a key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research, thus adding to the sample ‘snowball’ fashion. Although not representative, it is a useful way to contact a sample of people who may otherwise be difficult to find.

Answer 24

Opportunity sampling involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access or a captive audience. However, the sample is unlikely to be representative.

Answer 25

- causes of achievement and underachievement (social class, gender and ethnicity) - external and internal influences on success and failure - classroom relationships - student behaviour and misbehaviour - gendered subject choice - the effect of educational policies on school

Answer 26

- schools (organisation, discipline, marketing) - students ( conformity, deviancy, subcultures and identity) - teachers ( attitudes towards sets and streams, social class, gender and ethnicity) - parents (attitudes and support) - classroom (teacher-student interactions)

Answer 27

gaining access to school to conduct research is not straightforward. permission and informed consent need to be obtained from: - LEAs - Governors and Head teacher - Parents (particularly if pupils are very young) - students themselves - By law, researcher will have to undergo a disclosure and barring service (DBS) to check their suitability if the researcher involves spending one-to-one time with students

Answer 28

schools have ready made sampling frames which might include: - lists or registers of present day students divided into year groups, subjects and exam entry - lists of past students and last known addresses - students lists that can be sub-divided by gender and ethnicity - names and addresses of parents (past and present) (these details are confidential, but a school may support sociological research by contacting parents for their cooperation) - lists of staff and responsibilities - lists of PTA members

Answer 29

- schools - parents - teachers - classrooms - students

Answer 30

- the many different school types in the UK (comprehensives, academies, grammar and private schools) which may undermine the representativeness of the sociological sample - finding similar schools to compare may be difficult - no one catchment area is the same - sociologists may be excluded from same school settings. e.g. management meetings - governors and heads may deny permission for sociological research if they suspect that the findings may result in criticism or bad publicity - schools are data-rich environments - they have a legal obligation to produce statistics on a range of processes in which sociologists are interested - some school data may be unavailable due to confidentiality, e.g. relating to 'students at risk' or with special needs or to personal problems the student and/or parents are experiencing - some schools, for example prestigious private schools have more power to say no to sociological research

Answer 31

sociologists may research parents by using questionnaires and interviews, however parent-teacher interaction could be observed at parents’ evenings or open days. PRACTICAL - access to parents is more difficult because they are not concentrated in one place PRACTICAL - parental addresses may be supplied by the school; the sample selected may be unrepresentative because such lists are unlikely to identify their social class, ethnicity etc. ETHICAL - some parents may only give informed consent for themselves if they can see the benefits of the research THEORECTICAL - parental response to a questionnaire about parental support and interest may be uneven - thus undermining its representativeness THEORECTICAL - some groups of parents may enthusiastically over-respond because they are involved with the PTA; others may fail to respond because they feel the research is implicitly critical of their efforts. THEORECTICAL - some parents may attempt to manage the impression the researchers have of them by exaggerating their support or interest

Answer 32

Questionnaires or interviews are used because it is more practical, but observations of interaction in a staffroom could be covertly observed. PRACTICAL - teachers are accessible (once permission has been gained) because they are concentrated in one place PRACTICAL - teachers are constrained by timetables, the need to prepare lessons and marking, so may lack the time and enthusiasm to take part in research ETHICAL - it is essential to assure teachers of confidentiality because they may be anxious that managers may use the data against them THEORECTICAL - teachers may engage in impression management and be unwilling to admit to certain types of 'negative' behaviour, such as stereotyping or labelling of students, because they fear being judged as unprofessional THEORECTICAL - teachers who may volunteer or who are selected by the head teacher to take part in the research may be unrepresentative of teachers in school.

Answer 33

Direct non-participant observation is the most common method used to research classrooms. PRACTICAL - the closed setting means the researcher can exercise more control over observing particular interactions and relationships PRACTICAL - the teacher's awareness of the observation may mean their interaction with students becomes less natural PRACTICAL/ETHICAL - there may be some scope for covert PO if the sociologists take on the roles of supply teacher or teaching assistant (although there are ethical issues with this) THEORECTICAL - teachers may associate observations with inspection of their ability and may attempt to manage the researchers impression of them by constructing an unrepresentative lesson, so their observed behaviour may not be high in validity THEORECTICAL - student behaviour may be unrepresentative as some may be subdued by the presence of a stranger, while others may be tempted to 'play up' to the researcher's presence (Hawthorne effect)

Answer 34

Questionnaires, interviews and observational methods may generate the following issues when researching students: Practical issues in researching students - - students are relatively easy to access because they have to legally attend school - representative samples can be taken from school sampling frames in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, age, ability etc. - some children may not be in school because they are persistently truant or have been suspended or excluded - children who have had a 'difficult' time at school and/or are members of anti-school subcultures are less likely to cooperate with researchers - Questionnaire design and wording needs to consider the age and ability of the child. - Researchers can use children who are claiming FSMs as samples of children from poorer families - Children may be reluctant to admit to behaviour (e.g. bullying or racist language) because they associate the researchers with authority. - Researching children can be time-consuming and therefore potentially expensive.

Answer 35

Ethical issues in researching students: - Children are generally regarded as a vulnerable group that need to be treated very sensitively - some groups of children (special needs or at risk) may be less available for research because they need more protection - researchers, especially interviewers will need to be vetted by officials to ensure that they are suitable to have close contact with children - researchers should obtain informed consent from children, but a young child is less likely to understand the aims of the research - research must not damage or undermine a child's educational progress - although, confidentiality is important, a researcher must report any evidence of abuse to the authorities. - children lack power and may find it difficult to turn down a request from an adult researcher, therefore undermining informal consent - researchers must ensure children suffer no emotional or psychological harm or distress because of their research

Answer 36

Theoretical issues in researching students: - interpretivists have suggested that power differences between children and adult researchers can undermine the validity of data - children may act unnaturally when observed in the classroom - if questionnaires are being completed as a group, peer pressure may undermine the validity of the response - if interviewing is being used, children may respond in a limited and less valid fashion if they interpret the interviewer as 'threatening' or teacher-like - in group interviews, some students may undermine validity by insisting on hogging the limelight - children may feel less threatened by research based on group interviews because the presence of their friends make them feel 'safer'

Answer 37

The logic of the experimental method is that the scientist manipulates (alters) the variables in which they are interested, in order to discover what effect they have. By following this method, the scientist can establish a cause-and-effect relationship. In turn, this will allow them to predict accurately what will happen in the future under specified conditions. One way to investigate this would be to take a set of identical plants and randomly divide them into two groups: an experimental and a control group. With the experimental group: the quantity of nutrients could be varied, carefully measuring and recording any changes in the plants’ size. With the control group, the quantity of nutrients would be constant. On comparing the results, if the experimental group plants have grown more rapidly than the plants in the control group after receiving extra nutrients, then a cause-and-effect relationship has been discovered: nutrients cause growth. In scientific terms, the nutrient is the independent variable (the causal factor) and the resulting growth is the effect or dependent variable (since it depends on the first variable, nutrition). Once a lab experiment has been conducted other researchers can replicate it following exactly the same steps, therefore this method is considered to be completely reliable, producing the same results each time. Also, because it is a very detached method, the researcher merely manipulates the variables and records the results. The scientist’s personal feelings and opinions have no effect on the conduct of the outcome of the experiment. Positivists, who see sociology as a science, like this method as they seen it as being an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology.

Answer 38

There are several practical reasons why such experiments are rarely used in sociology, even by positivists. Society is very complex, and it would be impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that might impact on behaviour. - Furthermore, their small-scale nature also reduces their representativeness as they can only ever be based on very small samples. - Theoretically, many sociologists have serious doubts about using experiments in human social research as they see them as artificial environments producing artificial results. - A laboratory is not a normal or natural environment and therefore it is unlikely that behaviour in these conditions is true to life and valid. - Furthermore, if people know they are being studied, this knowledge is likely to impact on their behaviour by changing it. This is known as the Hawthorn Effect.

Answer 39

- good reliability because it is easy to replicate the exact same conditions - high level of detachment between the researcher and the respondent so scientists personal feelings and opinions have no effect in the conduct of the experiment (objective research based on facts) - positivists preferred method is lab experiments as it allows scientific research to be quantified. Positivists see lab experiments as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology. - the controlled conditions of laboratory experiments allow researchers to isolate variables ; you can precisely measure the exact effect of one thing on another. - easy to attract funding because of the prestige of science - ethical - most laboratory experiments seek to gain informed consent - allows to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables.

Answer 40

- society is very complex so lab experiments are rarely used as it is impossible to identify, let alone control all the variable. - small scale nature reduces their representativeness as they can only be based on very small samples - low ecological validity - superficial / simplistic way of measuring behaviour - Hawthorne effect - further reduces validity as people may act differently if they know they are being studied impacting their behaviour - they are reductionist - humans have behaviour cannot be explained through a simple cause and effect relationship as humans are not puppets - ethical - deception and lack of informed consent - necessary in lab experiments to decisive subjects to the true nature of the experiment so they do not act differently linking to the Hawthorne effect - causes demand characteristics as people change their behaviour to be presented in an experiment

Answer 41

Field experiments take place in the subject’s natural surroundings, such as a school, rather than an artificial environment to make the research more valid and realistic. Additionally, to avoid the Hawthorne Effect those involved are generally not aware that they are taking part in an experiment. As a result, many critics argue that they are unethical. Furthermore, because they are more realistic, there is less scope for control over the variables that might be operating.

Answer 42

The comparative method is carried out only in the mind of the sociologist. It is a ‘thought experiment’ and does not involve the researcher actually experimenting on real people at all. However, like the lab and field experiment, it too is designed to discover cause-and-effect relationships. It works as follows: (a) Identify two groups of people that are alike in all major respects except for one variable we are interested in. (b) Then compare the two groups to see if this one difference between them has any effect. Therefore, this method is ethical, it avoids artificiality and can be used to study past events. However, it gives the researcher even less control over variables than do field experiments, so we can be even less certain whether this method has really discovered the cause of something.

Answer 43

It is important to have a control group in an experiment because it is easier to measure the extent of the impact of the independent variable. (easier to make comparisons between groups)

Answer 44

- lab experiments are reliable because it is easy to replicates the same conditions and results each time - lab experiments are reliable as there is a high level of detachment between researcher and respondent which means scientists personal feelings and opinions have no effect on the conduct of the outcome of the experiment

Answer 45

To avoid the Hawthorne effect, it is necessary to deceive subjects who are not aware of the true nature of the experiment so they do not act differently and ensure subjects are acting realistically. - to enhance the validity of the experiment and reduce the Hawthorne effect

Answer 46

- unethical with issues of deception and lack of informed consent research subjects not informed that an experiment is taking place in order for them to act naturally leading to issues of deception and lack of consent - theoretical - not possible to control variables as closely with becomes, it becomes harder to identify where the causes identified are the correct ones as they are not taking place in the lab

Answer 47

advantage - avoids artificiality as it can be used to study past events and it poses no ethical problems such as harming subjects disadvantage - gives research less control over variables than in field experiments, making it less certain whether the experiment discovered the cause of something

Answer 48

Lab experiments have been used to investigate teacher expectations. Harvey and Slatin (1976) examined teachers’ preconceived ideas about pupils of different social classes. A sample of 96 teachers were shown 18 photos of children from different social classes and were asked to rate them on their performance, aspirations etc. They found that teachers, particularly the more experienced ones rated WC children less favourably and based their ratings on the similarities they perceived between the children in the photos and the pupils they taught. This illustrates that teachers label pupils from different social classes and use these labels to pre-judge pupils’ potential. Further research by Mason (1973) studied the impact of positive and negative expectations. Teachers were given positive, negative or neutral reports on a pupil, they then observed video footage of the pupil taking a test and were then asked to predict the pupil’s end of year attainment. He found that the negative reports had a much greater impact than the positive ones on teachers’ expectations.

Answer 49

- Ethical concerns: They play a limited role in educational research due to the ethical concerns raised with working with young pupils. Most do not involve real pupils so have fewer ethical implications. Neither of used real pupils, so no child suffered any negative effects. - Narrow focus: They usually only examine one specific aspect of behaviour, such as teacher expectations. This can be useful as it allows the researcher to isolate and examine the variable more thoroughly, but it often results in too narrow a focus. - Practical problems: There are problems in conducting experiments on issues such as teachers’ expectations. In practice it is impossible to identify, let alone control all the variables that might exert an influence on teachers’ expectations. Some educational issues could not be studied in small scale lab settings. - Artificiality: Their artificiality means that they tell us little about the real world.

Answer 50

Several field experiments have been located in real educational settings, for example Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968). They carried out their research in a California primary school and it was designed to test labelling and the SFP. However, the following points have been raised regarding the use of field experiments in education: - Ethical problems: The potential impact of an experiment such as Rosenthal and Jacobson’s on the pupils involved can be of great concern. Such an experiment would be unlikely to be given permission to be conducted today. Field experiments work best when those involved are unaware that they are in an experiment. However, this requires deception. - Reliability: Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study was easy to repeat and within 5 years it had been repeated no less than 242 times, however it cannot be replicated due to the differences in teachers and pupils involved etc. - Broader focus: However, they were able to study a number of factors such as teachers’ expectations, labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy rather than just examining single elements in isolation.

Answer 51

Questionnaires refer to a list of pre-determined questions. They can be administered by hand, past or online. Each type carriers its own advantages and disadvantages. Two types of questions can be asked: closed questions have a pre-determined range of response options fixed by the researcher, the respondent selects from alternative options, a box to tick or a preference to circle. Open questions ask the respondent to answer in their own words without any predetermined options, space is left to allow freedom and detail. Although open questions allow qualitative data to be gained, questionnaires are the main method used for macro level of analysis and for generating qualitative data as they allow classification and measurement,

Answer 52

closed questions have a pre-determined range of response options fixed by the researcher, the respondent selects from alternative options, a box to tick or a preference to circle.

Answer 53

Open questions ask the respondent to answer in their own words without any predetermined options, space is left to allow freedom and detail. Although open questions allow qualitative data to be gained, questionnaires are the main method used for macro level of analysis and for generating qualitative data as they allow classification and measurement,

Answer 54

ADVANTAGES: - practical advantages: questionnaires are quick and cheap means of gathering large amount of data from a large sample, geographically dispersed - particularly if conducted online or by post. Dewson(2001) posted nearly 4,000 questionnaires to students at 14 HE institutions researching the factors which influence the decisions of WC students to go to university, - respondents complete and return the questionnaires themselves, therefore there is no need to recruit and train interviewers or observers to collect the data. - the data is easy to quantify, particularly where pre-coded, closed questions are used and can be processed quickly by computer to identify relationship between variables

Answer 55

reliability : - questionnaires are a standardised and fixed yardstick that can be used by any researcher, all respondents are asked exactly the same questions, in the same order, with the same options for answers. Therefore, the research can be easily is repeated. - differences in answers can be assumed to be a reflection of real differences between respondents and not simply the result of different questions or how they have been asked. With postal and online questionnaires, unlike interviews, there is no research present, to influence the respondents answers. - one researchers study can be easily repeated and checked and comparisons can be made Hypothesis testing: - They are particularly useful for testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. They are attractive to positivists, because they enable possible causes to be identified as they take a scientific approach, seeking it discover laws of cause and effect Detachment and objectivity: - Positivists also favour questionnaires as they are a detached and a objective method, where the sociologist's personal involvement with their respondents is kept to a minimum - this is particularly the case with online and postal questionnaires. Therefore, they see them s a good way of maintaining detachment and objectivity. Representativeness: - The results of questionnaires stand a better chance of being truly representative as they collect information from a large sample of people. Furthermore, researchers who use questionnaires are more likely to try to obtain a representative sample, allowing the findings to be generalised to the wider target population, Ethical issues: - Although questionnaires may ask intrusive and personal questions, respondents are under no obligation to answer and their anonymity is guaranteed, therefore, they pose fewer ethical issues than most other methods.

Answer 56

Practical disadvantages/problems: - the data from questionnaires tends to be limited and superficial. This is because they tend to be brief to ensure that respondents complete and return them. This limits the amount of information that can be gathered. - Also, it may sometimes be necessary to offer incentives to persuade respondents to participate. - with postal and online questionnaires, the research cannot guarantee that the potential respondent actually received the questionnaire or whether a returned questionnaire was actually completed by the person it was addressed to.

Answer 57

Low response rate: - low response rates, particularly from postal and online questionnaires can be a huge problem. 100,000 questionnaires were sent out to the US for a study on 'love, passion and emotional violence' by Shere Hite (1991), however only 4.5% were returned. - Those who do return their questionnaires may be different from those who do not. If the respondents are different from the non-respondents then the results will be distorted and unrepresentative, from which no valid generalisations can be made. - A higher response rate can be obtained if follow up questionnaires are sent, or they are collected by hand. However, this adds to the cost and time. Inflexibility: - They are inflexible as new areas of interest that come up in the research cannot be explored. This can be contrasted to unstructured interviews, where the research can ask new questions if they seem relevant. Snapshot picture: - They provide a picture of social reality at only one point in time; the moment when questions are completed. Therefore, they do not provide a fully valid picture because they do not capture the way people's attitudes and behaviour changes. This snapshot contrasts with the moving picture of social life that can be gained from participant observation. Detachment: - Interpretivists argue that data from questionnaires lacks validity and does not give a true picture of what has been studied as they do not allow the sociologist to get close to the subjects that they study and share meanings. They believe that research should enable the sociologist to put themselves in the subject's place and see the world through their eyes. Questionnaires are the more detached of all methods and therefore prevent this - postal and online questionnaires involve no direct contact between the research and the researched. - This means that there is no way to clarify that the questions mean or to deal with misunderstandings and misinterpretations Lying, forgetting and 'right answerism': - All methods that gather data by asking questions depend on the respondents willingness and ability to provide full and accurate answers. Problem of validity are created when respondents give limited answers. Respondents may be dishonest, forget, now know, not understand or try to please or second-guess the research. Some may give 'respectable' answers they feel they ought to give rather than tell the truth. In contrast, observational methods allow the sociologist to see for him/herself what the subjects actually do, rather than what they say they do. Imposing the researcher's meanings: - Interpretivists argue that questionnaires are likely to impose the researcher's own meanings than reveal those of the respondent; by choosing which questions to ask, how to ask them, predetermined options for answering, they have decided what is important. - If open questions are asked, similar but non-identical answers may get lumped together in the same category for analysis, thus distorting the respondents meanings and undermining the validity of the data.

Answer 58

- quick and easy to complete - easier to compare - enhances generalisation of results and few sets of questions to complete - data is quantitative which means it is easy to analyse and compute - allow comparisons to be made with other sets of data

Answer 59

``` Practical issues: Questionnaires are very useful for gathering large quantities of basic information quickly and cheaply from large samples of pupils, teachers or educational settings. They can be used to correlate factors such as achievement, attendance and behaviour with variables such as type of school, school size, class size, class, gender etc. ``` ``` Sampling frames: Schools are a good source of ready-made sampling frames. They keep lists of pupils and staff and these can provide accurate sampling frames from which to draw a representative sample. Schools also have ready-made opportunity samples of pupils and teachers e.g. year, class and form lists. ``` Response rate: Response rates for questionnaires are generally law. However, when conducted in schools they are usually higher, because once a head teacher has put their authority behind the research, teachers and pupils may be obliged to cooperate. Also, pupils, teachers and parents are accustomed to completing schools questionnaire, such as evaluation surveys Researching pupils: Children have a often short attention span than adults and so a short questionnaire can be more effective than interviews. However, this limits the amount of information that can be gathered. Pupils with poor literacy skills may be unable or unwilling to complete them Operationalising concepts: Turning abstract ideas such as 'deferred gratification' into a measurable form is particularly difficult when researching pupils. Young people have a poorer grasp of abstract ideas, so they are less likely to understand some of the questions. Samples: Schools may not keep lists that reflect the researcher's interests, e.g., the researcher may wish to investigate ethnicity or social class, but the school may not keep lists of pupils sorted by their ethnic origin or socio-economic background Validity: The life experiences of children (especially primary age children) are narrower, so they may not actually know the answers to questions. Consequently, questionnaires may be of little value.

Answer 60

Interviews represent something of a compromise between the more structured research methods such as questionnaires and the very unstructured in-depth methods such as participant observation. Interviews can be adapted to meet the theoretical and practical preferences of different sociologists and because of this, they are a very popular research tool. Although, sociologists use different types of interviews in their research, from completely structured to unstructured - the difference between them lying in how free the interviewer is to vary the questions and the way they are all based on a social interaction between the interview and interviewee

Answer 61

An interview is a researcher directly asking a series of questions to one or more interviewees. They can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured and can be conducted in groups or with individuals.

Answer 62

- structured or formal interviews - unstructured or informal interviews - semi-structured interviews - group interviews

Answer 63

Structured or formal interviews are essentially a verbal questionnaire. The interviewer is given strict standardised instructions on how to ask questions in precisely in the same way, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice etc for each participant (positivists prefer this method)

Answer 64

Unstructured or informal interviews (sometimes called discovery interviews) are like a guided conservation where the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order etc from one interview to the next - pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate and relevant, asking follow-up questions to probe in greater depth. Also, new questions can be generated from answers of the respondents - similar to a conversation. (interpretivists prefer this method)

Answer 65

Semi-structured interviews refer to an interview that has the same set of questions in common but the interview can probe for more detailed information. For example, Circourel and Kitsuse (1963) always followed up their questions with 'How do you mean?' as a way of gaining more information and in-depth answers. (Interpretivists prefer this method)

Answer 66

group interviews refer to when up to 12-15 people are interviewed together. Willis (1977) used these as part of his research into anti-school subcultures. Focus groups are a form of group interviews in which the researcher asks a group to discuss certain topics and record their views.

Answer 67

Structured Interviews (SIs) are liked questionnaires but the predetermined (usually closed) questions are read out and filled in by the researcher. Practical Issues: - Training interviewers is straightforward, however it is more costly than using questionnaires. - Surveys using Sis can cover a large sample (but not as great as postal or emailed questionnaires. - Results are easily quantified as questions are usually closed and pre-coded. Therefore, they are suitable for hypothesis testing.

Answer 68

Response rate: - SIs usually have a high response rate as people often find it difficult to turn down a face-to-face request. This increases the chances of gaining a representative sample and therefore provides a basis for making generalisations. - However, those who participate may be untypical. This would produce unrepresentative data and undermine the validity of any generalisations made.

Answer 69

Reliability: - SIs are viewed as reliable because they are standardised and control and can therefore be repeated. Another researcher following the same interview procedure should get the same results. - Answers can easily be compared and similarities and differences identified.

Answer 70

Validity: - Critics of SIs argue that like questionnaires, the closed questions reduce the validity of the responses as the freedom of interviewees is restricted. They may not be provided with a relevant pre-coded answer and there is little scope to clarify misunderstandings. - Because an interview is a social interaction, there is always a risk that the researcher will impact on the answers.

Answer 71

Inflexibility: - Like questionnaires, they suffer from the inflexibility of having standardised questions and predetermined responses (and as above, this impacts on the validity of the findings).

Answer 72

Feminist criticisms: - In SIs, the researcher is dominant and in control of the interview. Feminists argue that this mirrors women’s subordination in wider society, particularly if female interviewee feels intimidated by the research experience. - Feminists (and interpretivists) favour unstructured interviews which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy and support.

Answer 73

Unstructured interviews (UIs) do not follow a standardised format and therefore the researcher has freedom to vary the interview. ADVANTAGES: Rapport and sensitivity: - The informality of UIs allows the researcher to develop a rapport (where a conversation reflects a relationship of trust and understanding) with the interviewee. This will put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up . - They are useful when studying sensitive issues. Dobash and Dobash used them to study domestic violence. The empathy and encouragement of the researcher will help the interviewee to feel comfortable discussing difficult issues. The interviewee’s view: - Unlike SIs, they provide great freedom and scope for the interviewee to speak about things they think are important and relevant to the research in their own terms. As a result, they are more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data. - The researcher’s probing can help formulate and develop interviewees’ thoughts more clearly. Checking understanding: - The interviewer and interviewee can check each other’s meanings and follow up questions can clarify any misunderstandings. Flexibility: - The researcher can formulate new ideas, themes, questions and hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview. Exploring unfamiliar topics: - Because questions are open-ended and exploratory as in an ordinary conversation, researchers can start the interview with relatively little subject knowledge on the issue being researched. - Some sociologists use UIs as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation.

Answer 74

DISADVANTAGES: Practical problems: - As UIs are in-depth explorations, they take a long time to conduct and this limits the number that can be carried out. This means the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with the large numbers that can be researched using SIs and questionnaires. - Training needs to be more thorough for a researcher to recognise a sociologically valid point and probe it further, than for someone conducting SIs. This adds to the cost of UIs. - Interviewers need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the necessary rapport central to gaining full and honest responses. Representativeness: - Samples will rarely be representative due to the smaller number of UIs that can be conducted. Therefore, it is difficult to make generalisations. Reliability: - UIs are not reliable as they are not standardised as each interview is unique. Therefore it is impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check findings. Quantification: - Because questions are open, they cannot be quantified. This means they are not useful for establishing cause and effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer. Validity: - UIs are generally seen as producing valid data. However, critics argue that because they are interactive, this colours and distorts the information obtained.

Answer 75

All interviews involve social interaction. The danger here, is that the interviewee may be responding not to the questions asked, but to the social situation in which they are asked. Social interaction can threaten the validity of interviews in several ways: Interviewer bias: - Interviewers may consciously or unconsciously influence the answer by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice or asking leading questions. - A source of interviewer bias is where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees. Oakley (1982) admitted that as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when she was interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth. Artificiality: - Even the most relaxed or UIs is still an interview and not quite a normal conversation; under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be gained. Follow up interviews help to check and improved the validity of the answers gained. Status and power inequalities: - Inequalities between the interviewer and interviewee may impact on the interviewee’s honesty or willingness to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data, e.g. Rich (1968) found that when adults interview children, the child’s need to please the interviewer will affect their answers. - Social class, age, gender and ethnic differences can shape and impact on interviews. Wherever possible researchers will try to ensure that the interviewers and interviewees are as closely matched in terms of social status. Cultural differences: - Cultural differences may lead to misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being attached to words etc. Therefore, wherever possible researchers will try to ensure that the interviewers and interviewees are culturally matched. Social desirability effect: - In social interaction, people often seek approval. This may be relevant in interviews as interviewees may provide answers to present themselves in a positive light. They may not want to appear ignorant or uninteresting, so may offer any answer rather than none at all or fail to ask for clarification if they do not understand the question. Ethical issues: - Interviews are ethical, however, the interviewee could feel under pressure to answer questions.

Answer 76

RESPONSE RATE - SIs have practical advantages, namely they usually take less time than UIs and so they are less disruptive to schools’ activities. Therefore, researchers are more likely to receive official support for the research. The hierarchical nature of the school may then work in their favour and this may increase the response rate. RELIABILITY - SIs are easy to replicate. Therefore, large-scale patterns in educational behaviour can be identified, e.g. in gender and subject choice. VALIDITY - As young people tend to have better verbal than literacy skills, interviews may be more successful than questionnaires to gather valid data. However, the formal nature of SIs (similar to exams, lessons and other controlled situations) means pupils are unlikely to feel at ease and therefore may be less forthcoming. QUESTION DESIGN - It is more difficult to create questions for use with young people because their linguistic and intellectual skills are not fully developed. As a result, they may not understand long, complex sentences or some abstract concepts. In answers, they may have a more limited vocabulary and use words incorrectly. They therefore need more help and clarification – neither of which happens in SIs. ETHICAL ISSUES - Parental permission may be required to interview children. Whether or not this is given depends partly on the sensitivity of the research topic, e.g. sex education. POWER AND STATUS DIFFERENCES - Pupils and teachers are not equal in power and status and this affects their behaviour. Pupils often alter their responses to seek adult approval by giving untrue but socially acceptable answers. Children see adults as authority figures, so the researcher may come across as a ‘teacher in disguise’. This is particularly true in formal interview situations. This will reduce the validity of the interview data

Answer 77

POWER AND STATUS INEQUALITY - UIs may overcome barriers of power and status inequalities. Their informality can establish rapport more easily. Labov’s research shows that UIs can encourage interviewees to open up and respond more fully. This produces more valid data, which is particularly useful when dealing with sensitive topics, e.g. bullying. PRACTICAL ISSUES - Pupils may be inarticulate or reluctant to talk, so UIs give them space, time and encouragement to work out their responses. However, younger pupils have a shorter attention span, so may find long UIs too demanding. VALIDITY - The difficulties in communicating with young people mean that UIs may be suitable, because the interviewer can clarify misunderstandings by explaining questions. However, children may also have more difficulty in keeping to the point and may present contradictory or irrelevant responses. RELIABILITY - To put young people at ease, some interviewers try to maintain a relaxed atmosphere by nodding, smiling and making eye contact. However, this cannot be standardised, so different interviewers may obtain very different results, and this would reduce the reliability of their findings. SOCIAL DESIRABILITY - Pupils are accustomed to adults ‘knowing better’ and so may defer to them in interviews. Children are more likely than adults to change their original answer when the question is repeated because they think it must have been wrong. Teachers may seek to protect their professional self-image and so are likely to represent themselves in the most positive light. However, an UI allows researchers to probe behind this image. INTERVIEWER TRAINING - Unstructured interviewing of young people requires more training than interviewing adults. Interviews need to be trained not to interrupt children’s answers, to tolerate long pauses and to avoid repeating questions, since this may make children change their original answer for fear that it was wrong.

Answer 78

Non participant observation (NPO) refers to when the researcher observes the group or event without taking part in it

Answer 79

Participant observation (PO) refers to when the researcher joins the group and participates in its everyday life while observing it

Answer 80

NPO and PO can be conducted either overtly or covertly

Answer 81

Overt observation refers to when the true identify of the researcher is known to those being studied as the sociologist is open with their observations and participants are aware that they are being observed/researched.

Answer 82

Cover observation refers to when a study is conducted 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and purpose are concealed from the group being studied. This entails the researcher taking on a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group they are studying

Answer 83

In sociology, most observation studies are unstructured PO which is the method preferred by Interpretivists. However, when positivists use observation methods they prefer NPO in which the researcher uses a structured observation schedule to categorise what systematically has happens. The schedule is a pre-determined list of behaviours or situations the sociologist is interested in. Each time an instance of such behaviour occurs, the sociologist records it on the schedule. The researcher adds up the number of times each event occurs. This produces quantitative data, from which patterns, trends and conclusion can be drawn.

Answer 84

ONPO is a non-participatory observational method based on observing people with their consent. Sociologists often use this method when they are studying interactions in organisations such as schools and workplaces etc. Typically, the sociologist would either: - Sit with an observation schedule and systematically commit observations to this - S/he would key in their observations on a lap-top - Let things unfold without pre-empting what to look for and make notes

Answer 85

One ONPO study is so famous that it has a phenomenon named after it: the Hawthorne Effect. Research was conducted by Elton May in the 1930s at the Hawthorne plant of the West Electric Company in Chicago. He wanted to find out what kinds of incentive and work condition would encourage employees to work harder. He first initiated a series of systematic changes relating to the employees’ coffee breaks, lightening, lunch hours, background music etc. However, whatever change he implemented resulted in increased productivity – when they were given two or three additional coffee breaks, they worked harder, but when they were not permitted any coffee breaks – they still worked harder. Bemused at first, Mayo later realised that the increase in work rates were due to all the attention the workers were gaining from the researcher and the fact that they knew they were being observed/researched – the researcher was the critical factor, the independent variable.

Answer 86

The impact of a researcher’s presence on participants behaviour became known as the Hawthorne Effect. As a result of this effect, researchers are keen to minimise their intrusion in the research process, because when people ‘play to the gallery’ of the researcher, what they do ceases to be natural and ‘normal’ behaviour – this produces invalid data. This doesn’t mean that sociologists must give up on any overt research. If they make allowances for the fact that sometimes what they see is influenced by their presence and if they are adept at blending into the background and being unobtrusive – they will be able to produce valid research findings. As in all observational research, a genuine sensitivity towards one’s surroundings – coupled with a research technique that is minimally intrusive, is guaranteed to enhance the validity of what the researcher is able to observe and record

Answer 87

ADVANTAGES: - ethical - as researchers observe with their informed consent. - produces quantitative data from which patterns, trends and conclusions can be drawn - validity - genuine sensitivity - towards one's surroundings coupled with a research technique that is minimally intrusive which enhances the validity of what is observed - Practical - NPO can be done anywhere - easily accessible - Reliable - as if NPO is recorded, other sociologists can watch it and analyse it - Reliable - same observation schedule can be replicated - Allows researcher to see what goes on with their own eyes - can make judgements and observe body language used - Researcher can be more open minded as they're an outsider looking in - less likely to feel sympathy and therefore produce bias data - More ethical if done overtly - no ethical issues if people are aware they are being observed

Answer 88

DISADVANTAGES: - NPO can lead to the Hawthorne effect which can produce invalid data as people who are researched are not acting 'naturally' which is not representative/reliable (an audience effect). However, it could be argued that the Hawthorne effect can be minimized by accounting for this. - More detached method - researcher does not get a detailed insight of who they are researching - Schools may restrict/refuse access for NPO research due to worries about publicity or the image of the school - hard to gain representative sample in terms of target population - can lead to Hawthorne effect - people act differently as they know they are being observed - May be hard to gain accurate results as watching from a distance - Impression management and Time consuming/costly -

Answer 89

Tryona and Hatcher - studied racism in childrens livesthrough observation in mainly whit schools - focused on 10 - 11 year olds and looked at their behaviour, interactions and responses. Found where black students are a relative minority racism and harrasment more likely. By not participating they could watch body language closely . However presence of researcher results in hawthorne effect

Answer 90

- Getting in, staying in and getting out. | - Whether to be an overt or covert observation

Answer 91

Getting in: To do the study, the sociologist (S) must gain entry to the group. Some are easier to enter than others – accessing a football crowd is easier than joining a criminal gang. Making the initial contact with the group may depend on personal skills, having the right connections or pure chance. James Patrick (1973) was able to join a Glasgow gang because he looked quite young and knew one of its members from having taught him in an approved school. To gain entry to a group, the S will have to win their trust and acceptance. It may help if they make friends with a key individual, as Sarah Thornton (1995) did with Kate in her study of the clubbing and rave scene. Sometimes though, the Ss age, gender, class or ethnicity may prove to be an obstacle as Thornton found her age and nationality a barrier: ‘I began my research when I was 23 and slowly aged out of the peer group I was studying. Also, as a Canadian investigating British clubs and raves, I was quite literally a stranger in a strange land.’ She was met with suspicion at first. As Kate’s brother put it: ‘How do you know she won’t sell this to the Daily Mirror?’ However, such barriers can sometimes be overcome. A white researcher, Elliot Liebow (1967) succeeded in gaining acceptance by a black street-corner gang in Washington DC. ‘Getting in’ poses the question of what role the researcher should adopt. Ideally it should be one that does not disrupt the group’s normal patterns and offer a good vantage point from which to make observations. However, this can be difficult.

Answer 92

Staying in: Once accepted, the researcher needs to be able to stay in the group and compete the study. This is a key problem for the S: having to be both involved in the group so as to understand it fully, and yet at the same time detached from the group so as to remain objective and unbiased. One danger of staying in the group is that of becoming over-involved or ‘going native’. By over-identifying with the group, the S becomes biased. When this happens, they have stopped being an objective observer and have simply become a member of the group. For example, in his study of the Amsterdam police, Maurice Punch (1979) found that in striving to be accepted by the tightly-knit patrol group he was studying, he over-identified with them, even acting as a police officer himself – chasing and holding suspects, searching houses, cars and people and shouting at people who abused his police ‘colleagues’. At the other extreme, the S may preserve their detachment so as to avoid bias, but by remaining detached they risk not understanding the events they observe. Striking a balance between these two extremes is extremely difficult, as David Downes and Paul Rock (1989) describe: ‘POs try to perform a most intricate feat. They are required to reach the probably unattainable state of one who is both insider and outsider, a person who sees a social world from within it in the manner of a member yet who also stands apart and analyses it in the manner of a stranger.’ A further problem is that the longer the S spends with the group, the less strange its ways come to appear. After a while, the S may cease to notice things that would have struck them as unusual or noteworthy at an earlier stage of the research: they become a non-observing participator

Answer 93

Getting out: In practical terms, getting out of the group at the end of the study generally presents fewer problems than getting in or staying in – particularly for OPO. The S can simply stop the research and leave if there are any problems. This was Patrick’s experience when studying the Glasgow gang – he was sickened by the violence and abandoned the study abruptly. Nevertheless, leaving a group that a S has become close to can be difficult, as can be re-entering their ‘normal’ life. These problems can be made worse if the research is conducted on and off over a period of time, with multiple ‘crossings’ between the two worlds. The S may also find that loyalty prevents them from fully disclosing everything they have learnt, for fear that this might harm members of the group. For example, in the case of criminal groups, exposure of their activities might lead to prosecution or reprisals against the author.

Answer 94

WHETHER TO BE IN AN OVERT AND COVERT OBSERVATION: Sociologists must decide whether to use OPO or CPO. OPO avoids ethical issues and allows the S to ask naïve but important questions that only an outsider could ask and take notes openly. However, it risks creating the Hawthorne Effect - where those who know they are being observed behave differently – this undermines the validity of the research. A group may refuse permission for the research or only allow the S to see what they wanted him/her to see. Because of these problems, some Ss choose CPO. Nigel Fielding (1981) used CPO when researching the national Front because he believed he would encounter hostility if they knew he was a S. However, CPO raises important practical and ethical issues: (a) Practical issues: It requires the S to keep up an act and may call for detailed knowledge of the group’s way of life before joining it. There is always the risk of the Ss cover being ‘blown’ by even a trivial mistake. Patrick was almost found out when he bought his suit with cash instead of credit and when he fastened the middle button of his jacket rather than the top one – things the gang would not have done. Or when he was handed an axe to use in a fight. Furthermore, the S cannot take notes openly and must rely on their memory and the opportunity to write them in secret. They cannot ask naïve but important questions and there is still some scope for the Hawthorne Effect – as the presence of a new member (the S) to the group, can behaviour. (b) Ethical issues: These often conflict with the practical advantage of observing natural behaviour. It is immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or ‘in the same boat’. Ss may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group when they have completed their research, they may have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their ‘cover’ role and as witnesses to such activities – they may have a moral or legal duty to intervene or report them.

Answer 95

Validity: What people say they do when interviewed or researched via a questionnaire, and what they do in reality, are not always the same. Therefore, observations provide rich qualitative data that provides a picture of how people really behave. Supporters of PO argue that this is the method’s main strength, and most of its other advantages are linked to this. Insight: The best way to truly understand what something is like is to experience it. Sociologists call this personal or subjective understanding, verstehen (empathy) – an understanding that comes from putting yourself in another person’s place. Flexibility: PO is a very flexible method. Rather than starting with a fixed hypothesis and pre-set questions, it allows the sociologist to enter into the research with a relatively open mind about what they will find. Therefore, as new situations are encountered, new explanations can be developed and the sociologist can change direction to follow them up there and then. In this way, any theories that the researcher produces are ‘grounded’ in real life. This open-mindedness allows the researcher to discover things that other methods may miss. As Whyte noted, simply by observing, ‘I learned answers to questions that I would not have had the sense to ask if I had been using interviews.’ Practical Advantages: Sometimes PO may be the only viable method for studying certain groups, particularly deviant groups or activities who would not cooperate with research. As Yablonsky points out, a teenage gang is likely to see researchers who come armed with questionnaires as the unwelcome representatives of authority. In contrast, PO enables the sociologist to build a rapport and gain the group’s trust and has proved a successful approach to the study of delinquent gangs, football hooligans, thieves, drug users, religious sects and other ‘outsider’ groups. Furthermore, PO is a useful method to reveal realities, where questioning would be ineffective.

Answer 96

Practical disadvantages: (a) It is very time-consuming, for example Whyte’s study took 4 years to complete; (b) it can be personally stressful and demanding, particularly if covert; the researcher needs to be trained to notice sociologically relevant information; (c) it requires observational and interpersonal skills that not everyone possesses; (d) the social status and personal characteristics of the researcher may limit what types of groups can be studied and finally, (e) many groups may not cooperate with this type of study, which is often why covert methods are used and why powerless groups are studied. Ethical problems: CPO in particular raises serious ethical difficulties, including deceiving people in order to obtain information about them and participating in illegal or immoral activities in the course of sociological research. Representativeness: PO studies are usually very small and the sample is often selected haphazardly. This does not provide a sound basis for making generalisations. As Downes and Rock note, although PO provides valid insights into the particular group studied, it is doubtful how far these internally valid insights are externally valid, that is generalizable to the wider population. Reliability: With PO, so much depends on the unique personal skills and characteristics of the researcher that it is highly unlikely any other researcher would be able to replicate the original study. Bias and lack of objectivity: (a) The risk of becoming too involved and ‘going native’ makes it difficult to remain objective and a one-sided, biased view of the group may emerge; (b) Loyalty to the group or fear of reprisals may lead the sociologist to conceal sensitive information and therefore those who read the published study are denied a full and objective account; (c) As it is an effective method for ‘telling it like it is’ from the social actor’s point of view, some may be biased towards their subjects’ viewpoints. This is compounded as PO often attracts sociologists whose sympathies lie with the underdog. Validity: Allowing the sociologist to become an insider, PO gives an authentic and valid account of the social actor’s world, enabling verstehen. Positivists reject this claim arguing that PO provides the subjective and biased impressions of the observer. It does not ‘tell it like it is’, rather PO tells it as the observer sees it and what s/he sees worthy of recording, which are likely to fit in with the researcher’s pre-existing views and prejudices. A further threat to validity comes from the Hawthorne Effect: the very presence of the observer may make the subjects act differently – which defeats the main aim, to produce a naturalistic account of human behaviour. Lack of a concept of structure: Interpretivists favour PO as it is a useful tool for examining micro-level interactions and meanings first hand. However, structural sociologists argue it ignores the wider structural forces that shape our behaviour. Therefore, seeing things only through the actors’ eyes will never give us the complete picture as they may be unaware of the structural forces shaping their behaviour.

Answer 97

PRACTICAL ISSUES : As a relatively closed physical and social environment, the classroom is well suited to SO. It is relatively easy for an observer to sit at the back of a classroom recording behaviour into set categories. The short duration of most lessons also means that the observer does not get fatigued. The relative simplicity of SO methods in the classroom means that they are quicker, cheaper and require less training than many other methods. However, some school situations often involve too many different behaviours to be satisfactorily categorised. RELIABILITY : The range of classroom behaviours (of both teachers and pupils) is relatively limited and therefore a limited number of behaviour categories can be established for use in the observation. It is therefore easy to replicate classroom observations. SO also generates categories ignores the meanings that pupils and teachers attach to it. VALIDITY : Interpretivists criticise SO of classroom interaction for its lack of validity. Simply counting classroom behaviour and classifying it into a limited number of pre-determined categories ignores the meanings that pupils and teachers attach to it. OBSERVER PRESENCE : The presence of a stranger, probably non-participant, observing behaviour using a checklist can be very off-putting (and certainly difficult to disguise) in a school. This is likely to affect teachers’ and pupils’ behaviour and reduce validity.

Answer 98

VALIDITY: PO is more likely to overcome the problem of status differences between pupils and researcher, thus allowing the researcher to gain acceptance by pupils, resulting in more valid data. Nevertheless, both teachers and pupils are skilled at altering their behaviour when being observed by those in authority. This makes it difficult for researchers to know if the behaviour they are seeing in schools is genuine. PRACTICAL ISSUES : Schools are complex places and it may take an observer weeks, or even months to understand how a school functions. However, classroom observation may be less disruptive than interviews, so it may be easier to gain permission to observe lessons than to interview pupils and teachers. Nevertheless, observation is restricted by the school timetable, holidays, the head teacher’s control over access etc. There is not much privacy in school – they are very busy places, so recording observations can be problematic. ETHICAL ISSUES: Pupils are more vulnerable than adults and may not be able to give informed consent. This means that classroom observation normally has to be overt. There are also greater ethical issues when dealing with schools in terms of protecting the school’s identity. A poor public image as a result of the research can damage a school’s reputation and the education of its pupils. THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT: Most observation has to be overt – there are few ‘cover’ roles the researcher can adopt because he or she stands out as being much older than the pupils. The Hawthorne Effect is therefore unavoidable to some degree. Teachers may be suspicious of an observer in their classroom and later their normal behaviour. REPRESENTATIVENESS: PO of schools and classrooms can only be carried out on a very small scale. The education system is vast, with over 35,000 schools and colleges. This makes representativeness virtually impossible to achieve using this method.

Answer 99

OS are quantitative data gathered by the government or other official bodies and are collected on births, deaths, marriages, divorces, exam results, crime, suicide, unemployment, health etc. The Census is a major source of OS and the government uses statistics for policy-making, e.g. statistics on birth are used plan the number of school places required. There are two ways of collecting OS: (a) Registration: for example, the law requires parents to register births and (b) Official surveys: such as the Census or the General Household Survey. In addition to OS, organisations such as charities, trade unions, businesses, churches etc. also produce statistics.

Answer 100

Registration: for example, the law requires parents to register births and (b) Official surveys: such as the Census or the General Household Survey. In addition to OS, organisations such as charities, trade unions, businesses, churches etc. also produce statistics.

Answer 101

PRACTICAL: Advantages: (a) They are a free source of huge amounts of data. Only the state can afford to conduct large-scale social surveys such as the Census and only they have the power to compel citizens to provide the information. (b) They allow comparisons between groups. (c) Because they are collected at regular intervals, they show patterns and trends over time. This means that sociologists can use them for ‘before and after’ studies to show cause and effect. Disadvantages: (a) The government collects statistics for its own use and not for the benefit of sociologists, so there may be none available on particular topics. (b) The definitions that the state uses in collecting data may be different from those that sociologists would use, e.g. may define poverty or truancy differently and this would impact on measurement. (c) If definitions change over time, it may make comparisons difficult, e.g. the official definition of unemployment changed over 30 times during the 1980s and early 1990s.

Answer 102

REPRESENTATIVENESS: Because OS often cover large numbers and because care is taken with sampling procedures, they often provide a more representative sample than sociological research would. They may therefore make a better basis for making generalisations and testing hypotheses. However, some statistics are less representative than others. Statistics gathered by compulsory registration such as births, deaths, marriages, divorces or the number of pupils in a school, are highly representative. By contrast, statistics which are not based on registration, e.g. crime statistics or those collected through surveys, are less likely to be representative. RELIABILITY: OS are generally seen as a reliable source of data. They are compiled in a standardised way by trained staff following set procedures therefore in principle any trained person will allocate a given case to the same category. However, the reality is that trained personnel can still make errors when recording data. VALIDITY: A major problem with using OS is that of validity. Do they actually measure the thing that they claim to measure? Hard statistics do succeed in doing this, e.g. much demographic data do give a very valid picture. However soft statistics do not, e.g. police statistics do not record all crimes or schools do not record all racist incidents. Attempts have been made by the Crime Survey of England and Wales to overcome OS on crime by using self-report and victim surveys.

Answer 103

Whether OS are viewed as useful or not largely depends on the theoretical perspective adopted by the sociologist: (a) Positivists: see statistics as a valuable source of data for sociologists as they take it for granted that OS are social facts; true and objective. They often use OS to test their hypotheses. For example, in Durkheim’s (1897) study on suicide he hypothesised that suicide is caused by a lack of social integration. Using the comparative method he argued that Protestant and Catholic religions differ in how well they integrate their members. Using the OS he was able to show that this was reflected in differences in the suicide rate between these religions and so his hypothesis was proved correct. (b) Interpretivists: regard OS as lacking validity, arguing that they do not represent real things or social facts but are socially constructed. In Atkinson’s (1971) view suicide statistics do not represent the real rate of suicides, but merely the number of deaths that coroners have labelled as suicides. Therefore, the statistics tell us more about the role of coroners rather than about the actual cases of suicide. (c) Marxists: take a different view. They do not regard OS as merely the outcome of labels applied by officials such as coroners, instead they see OS as serving the interests of capitalism. They believe that the state is not neutral in a capitalist society, but serves the interests of the capitalist class. Therefore, OS serve capitalist interests e.g. unemployment statistics underestimate the numbers unemployed and its damaging effect on the working class. Similarly, Marxists argue that official police statistics systematically underestimate the number of people taking part in demonstrations against government policies - this gives the public the impression that there is less opposition to capitalism.

Answer 104

PRACTICAL ISSUES: The government collects statistics from every school in the country. This saves sociologists time and money, as well as allowing them to make comparisons, e.g. between the achievements of different social classes, ethnic groups or genders. Statistics also allow us to examine trends over time, e.g. in achievement or attendance. Governments are interested in many of the same educational issues as sociologists, e.g. subject choice, racism in schools and inequality of achievement, so the statistics produced by government are likely to be very useful to researchers. However, the official definitions of key concepts and issues may differ from those that sociologists use, e.g. measuring achievement by 5 A*-C grades at GCSE. REPRESENTATIVENESS: Some OS on education are highly representative, e.g. all state schools have to complete a school census three times a year. It would be impossible for researchers to collect this quantity and range of data themselves. These statistics cover virtually every pupil in the country, so they are highly representative. RELIABILITY: The government uses standard definitions and categories in the collection of educational statistics. The same collection process is replicated from year to year, allowing direct comparisons to be made, e.g. of exam performance. However, governments may change the definitions and categories, e.g. several definitions of ‘value added’ have been used to measure school performance. This reduces reliability. VALIDITY: Interpretivists challenge the validity of educational statistics, seeing them as socially constructed, e.g. pupil attendance statistics are the outcome of definitions and decisions made by parents, teachers and pupils. Schools may manipulate their statistical records because there is pressure on them to present themselves positively in order to maintain their funding and parental support. This undermines the validity of the statistics. However, some educational statistics are less open to manipulation, e.g. pupil numbers on roll and exam results.

Answer 105

A document relates to any written texts, such as personal diaries, government reports, novels, newspapers, letters, emails, blogs, web pages, parish records, medical records etc. ‘Texts’ themselves include paintings, photographs, drawings etc. and sounds and images from film, TV, radio and other media output would also be included.

Answer 106

- public documents - personal documents - historical documents

Answer 107

PUBLIC DOCUMENTS: are produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, welfare agencies, businesses and charities. Some of their output may be available for sociological use, e.g. Ofsted reports, records of parliamentary debates etc. Public documents also include official government reports of public enquiries.

Answer 108

PERSONAL DOCUMENTS: include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums etc. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and they generally include the writer’s feelings and attitudes. A famous early study using documents is Thomas and Znaniecki’s (1919) research ‘The Polish Peasant in Europe and America’ which used diaries, letters and autobiographies to gain an insight into people’s personal experiences of migration. They also used public documents such as newspaper articles and court and social work records to explore their experiences.

Answer 109

HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS: can be either personal or public documents. If we want to study the past, historical documents are usually the only source of information (in cases of the recent past, there may be people still alive who can be questioned). The study of families and households illustrates the type of historical documents that have been used: (a) Aries used paintings of children and child-rearing manuals in his study of childhood; (b) Laslett used parish records to study family structures in pre-industrial England and (c) Anderson used parliamentary reports on child labour, as well as data from the 1851 Census to study changes in family structure in (19th Preston.

Answer 110

ASSESSING DOCUMENTS: Scott (1990) argues that when it comes to assessing documentary sources, the general principles are the same as those for any other type of sociological evidence. He puts forward 4 criteria for evaluating documents: Authenticity: Is the document what it claims to be? Are there any missing pages and if it is a copy, is it free from errors? Who actually produced the document? Credibility: Is the document believable? Was the author sincere? Is the document accurate? For example, politicians may write diaries intended for publication to inflate their own importance. Stein (2003) notes that documents on the internet are often not checked for accuracy before publication. Representativeness: Is the evidence in the document typical? If this question cannot be answered, then it may not be safe to generalise from it. Not all documents survive and not all documents are available for researchers to use. The 30 year rule prevents access to some official documents for 30 years and if classified as official secrets, they may not be available at all. Furthermore, certain groups who do not keep diaries or write letters etc. may be unrepresented. Meaning: The researcher may need special skills to interpret and understand the meaning of a document and what it meant to the writer and the intended audience. Different sociologists may interpret the same document differently.

Answer 111

Although they have to be assessed carefully by the sociologist before they are used as sources of evidence, they do have important advantages: (a) Personal documents allow the sociologist to get up close to the social actor’s reality, providing a rich detailed source of qualitative data. For this reason, Interpretivists favour them. (b) Sometimes they are the only source of information, for example in studying the past. (c) By providing another source of data, documents offer an extra check on the results obtained by primary methods. (d) They are a cheap source of data and they are also time efficient. - personal documents allow sociologist to get up to close with the social actors reality and experiences - personal documents provide rich detailed sources on qualitative data - interpretivists favour them as they provide qualitative data - documents may be the only source of information for studying the past in a more in depth way - documents provide another source of data that acts as extra check on the results obtained through primary methods - cheap source of data and time efficient

Answer 112

- documents on the internet are not usually checked for accuracy for publication which leads to credibility issues - credibility issues - politicians may write diaries for publication to inflate their importance rather than act as a source of data or accurate recount of events - representativeness issues not all documents are safe to generalise - as not all documents are available fore researchers to use with the 30 year rule preventing access to official documents for 30 years - certain groups do not keep diaries or write letters etc which may be unrepresentative

Answer 113

Content analysis is a method for dealing systematically with the contents of documents. It is commonly used in analysing media documents such as the news or advertisements. Although the content is qualitative, CA enables the sociologist to produce quantitative data from these sources. Lobban (1974) used CA to analyse gender roles in children’s reading schemes, while Tuchman (1978) used it to analyse television’s portrayal of women. Both found that women were portrayed in a limited number of stereotypical roles.

Answer 114

CA has several advantages: (a) It is cheap. (b) It is easy to find sources of material. (c) Positivists see it as a useful source of objective, quantitative, scientific data. In contrast, Interpretivists argue that simply counting up the number of times something appears in a document tells us nothing about its meaning.

Answer 115

PRACTICAL ISSUES: Because most education is run by the state and because schools and colleges compete with each other for ‘customers’, a large amount of information about education is made publicly available. This includes school policy statements, local authority guidelines, school brochures and websites. Other documents include minutes of staff meetings and working parties and pupils’ reports. ETHICAL ISSUES: There are few ethical concerns with public documents produced by schools because they have been placed in the public domain. There are more ethical problems with using personal documents such as school reports, pupils’ workbooks, teachers’ diaries/records etc. RELIABILITY: Many school documents e.g. attendance registers, are in a systematic format and so researchers can draw direct comparisons. However, accidental mistakes made when completing these documents reduce their reliability. CREDIBILITY: Public documents give the ‘official’ picture of what is happening in a school or college. In an education market, schools want to present themselves in the most positive way and so many documents are constructed with a parental audience in mind. This makes them less believable and less valid. REPRESENTATIVENESS: Because some documents are legally required of all schools and colleges, they are likely to be representative. However, not all behaviour is recorded (e.g. racist or sexist incidents) and this reduces representativeness. Personal documents produced by pupils or teachers are often less representative because they are collected in an unsystematic way. VALIDITY: Documents can provide important insights into the meanings held by teachers and pupils and can therefore be high in validity. However, all documents are open to different interpretations. Age and other differences between the researcher and pupils mean that the researcher cannot be sure that their interpretation of the meaning of pupils’ personal documents is accurate.

Research Methods - education Flashcards

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