Research Methods - Key Definitions

Question 1

Define external validity

Answer 1

The extent to which a study can be generalised, including:
– Ecological validity
– population validity
– temporal validity


Question 2

Define internal validity

Answer 2

Whether the study has tested what it meant to test and can be generalised beyond the experimental setting

Question 3

What is the difference between confidentiality and privacy

Answer 3

Confidentiality is the right to have personal information protected
Privacy is the right for an individual to control the flow of information about themselves

Question 4

What is deception

Answer 4

Participants are not told the true aims of the study and thus cannot give true informed consent

Question 5

What is protection from harm

Answer 5

Participants should not experience harm for psychological or physiological effects

Question 6

What is informed consent

Answer 6

The participants right to be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role within it, so that they can can decide whether they wish to participate in the experiment

Question 7

What is the right to withdraw

Answer 7

Participants should have the right to leave the study at any time if they feel uncomfortable

Question 8

How do you deal with informed consent and what are the limitations that come with this

Answer 8

– Researchers may be able to gain presumptive consent, and participants are offered the right to withdraw
– the information that is needed to be given may invalidate the purpose of the study
– the participants may not fully understand what they have let themselves in for

Question 9

How do you deal with deception and what are the limitations of this

Answer 9

– Participants should be fully debrief after the study
– this should also be approved by the ethics committee
– participants may still feel embarrassment or have low self-esteem

Question 10

How do you deal with the right to withdraw and what are the limitations with this method

Answer 10

– Participants should be fully made aware that they have the right to withdraw, especially those of a young age
– however participants may feel like they cannot withdraw for example (Milgram) if they have been paid or the experiment edges into coercion

Question 11

How do you deal with protection from harm and what are the limitations to this method

Answer 11

– Stop the study
– take no unnecessary risks greater than real life
– limitations – the experimenter can never truly know what the extent that the study may harm the individual – they cannot always accurately predict the risks of the study

Question 12

How do you deal with confidentiality and what are the limitations to this method

Answer 12

– Participants names should not be used, rather numbers or false names
– participant identity may still be guessable from the information received

Question 13

How do you deal with privacy and what are the limitations to this issue

Answer 13

– Privacy refers to not invading people’s personal lives as part of the study- observing people in a park is acceptable, as it is a public place and people would expect to be looked at.
- Make sure that participants are observed in a public space if they haven’t given their informed consent
– participants may be allowed to withhold their data
– however, there is no universal agreement on what constitutes a public place and not everyone may feel that this is acceptable

Question 14

Directional hypothesis definition and example

Answer 14

States the predicted difference between two conditions
E.g. there will be a higher recall of word is when using a mnemonic technique and we’re not using a mnemonic technique

Question 15

Nondirectional hypothesis definition

Answer 15

States that there will be a difference, however does not state the direction the difference will be

Question 16

Null hypothesis definition

Answer 16

States that there will be no difference and has no direction or prediction

Question 17

What is a pilot study

Answer 17

A small scale investigation used to iron out any potential errors in the study before the real experiment takes place, with a view towards making improvements

Question 18

What are the limitations of a repeated measures design

Answer 18

Each participant repeats every condition and therefore it may be subject to practice effects, fatigue effects, extraneous variables, participant variables and demand characteristics

Question 19

What are the limitations of an independent groups design

Answer 19

Participants are allocated to 2 or more conditions, each with a different experimental condition

Therefore, can be subjected to participant variables, and you need twice as many participants

Question 20

What are the limitations of the matched pairs design

Answer 20

Participants on matched due to their key variables – however, there may not be control over all these variables and this is very time consuming

Question 21

How can you deal with the limitations of a repeated measures design

Answer 21

1) use counterbalancing – each participant does every condition and it is therefore measured in equal amounts
2) You can use a cover story – single blind

Question 22

How do you deal with the limitations of an independent groups design

Answer 22

– Use matched pairs design to control participant variables
– randomly allocate participants
– be prepared to spend time and money

Question 23

How do you deal with the limitations of a matched pairs design

Answer 23

– Limit the number of extraneous variables tested
– conduct a pilot study

Question 24

What are demand characteristics

Answer 24

• A queue that makes participant aware of what the research expect to find
  – participants may I change their behaviour is to confirm the expectations

Question 25

What is social desirability bias

Answer 25

A tendency for participants to answer questions that will put them in a better light

Question 26

Give examples of situational variables

Answer 26

Time of day, temperature, noise

Question 27

Give examples of participant variables

Answer 27

Age, intelligence, motivation, experience, gender

Question 28

Give the three measures of central tendency and state their limitations and strength

Answer 28

– Mean – uses all values – subject to extreme values and cannot be used with nominal data – Mode – not subject to extreme values and can be used with nominal data. But, cannot be used when there are two modes. It does not take into account all numbers. – Median – not affected by extreme scores but does not reflect all values

Question 29

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the two measures of dispersion

Answer 29

– Range – is easy to calculate and provide you with direct information. However, is affected by extreme values and doesn’t take into account the number of observations – standard deviation – more precise measurement because it takes into account all of the values, however it may hide extreme values

Question 30

Lab experiment definition

Answer 30

An experiment that is conducted in a highly controlled environment, attempting to remove extraneous variables in order to study and IV with a DV

Question 31

Field experiment definition

Answer 31

An experiment carried out in a more natural environment where the independent variable is still manipulated by the experimenter, though with less control of extraneous variables been in a lab

Question 32

Natural experiment definition

Answer 32

The experimenter does not directly manipulate the independent variable so cause you’re conclusions cannot be made e.g. the study of Romanian orphans

Question 33

Advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment

Answer 33

– High control over extraneous variables and high internal validity and easily replicated – low external validity and artificial

Question 34

Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment

Answer 34

– More external validity – can still establish causal relationships – avoids participant effects – does not have as high control over extraneous variables and this reduces the internal validity

Question 35

Advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment

Answer 35

– High in ecological validity because real life problems I studied - Cannot establish a causal relationship – no control over extraneous variables – investigator effects

Question 36

What is the difference between event and time sampling

Answer 36

Event – the number of times a behaviour occurs time – behaviour is recorded periodically e.g. every 15 seconds

Question 37

What is a controlled observation

Answer 37

Behaviour is observed under controlled conditions

Question 38

What is a naturalistic observation

Answer 38

Behaviour is observed in a naturalistic setting, whether investigator does not interfere in anyway but merely observes the behaviour in question

Question 39

What is a behaviour checklist and what is a coding system

Answer 39

– Behaviour checklist – a list of behaviours to be recorded during an observational study – coding system – a systematic method for recording behaviours in which individual behaviours are given a code for ease of recording

Question 40

Difference between a covert an overt observation

Answer 40

– Covert – observing without participants knowledge – overt – observing with the participants knowledge

Question 41

Advantages of observational research

Answer 41

– High ecological validity – more accurate information – preliminary experiment to produce hypotheses for future investigations

Question 42

What are the weaknesses of observational research

Answer 42

– No control over extraneous variables – observer bias – ethical considerations

Question 43

Define and evaluate an opportunity sample

Answer 43

Participants chosen by selecting people who are most easily available – easy to find a dispenser – cheap to find participants – biased because it is not random as a sample maybe all from the same social group – e.g. age group

Question 44

Define and evaluate a volunteer sample

Answer 44

Relies on volunteers to make up the sample – easy to obtain – volunteer bias – limited variety of participants

Question 45

Define and evaluate a random sample

Answer 45

Every person has thrown into the hat and has an equal chance of being selected – unbiased – may end up with a biased sample anyway

Question 46

Define a systematic sample

Answer 46

Sample obtained by selecting every (Nth) person e.g. every 10th person on a list

Question 47

Define a stratified sample

Answer 47

Sample obtained according to the frequency in the population e.g. if 20% of your population is female than 20% of your family should be

Question 48

What is an unstructured interview

Answer 48

No set questions, just a general area of questioning. This allows the participants answers to guide the subsequent questions

Question 49

Advantages and weaknesses of questionnaires

Answer 49

– Easily replicated – more willing to reveal the truthful Information – Biased – only certain types of people fill out questionnaires - social desirability bias 

Question 50

Advantages and weaknesses of structured interviews

Answer 50

– Easily repeated – reliable – Less interviewing skills required – cheap – easy to analyse, particularly if questions are closed – interview bias as interviewer may behave differently on different occasions

Question 51

Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 51

– Rich in detail – qualitative data – access more information – interviewer bias – well-trained interviewers required

Question 52

Advantages and disadvantages of correlational analysis

Answer 52

– If correlation is significant – can justify more research into the study – if not significant, can rule out a causal relationship – cause and effect cannot be established – lacks validity – unknown variables could be causing the relationship

Question 53

Advantages and disadvantages of a case study

Answer 53

– Rich, in-depth detail – rare cases – lower external validity – ethical issues – lack objectivity – unreliable

Question 54

What is content analysis and how would this be performed on e.g. a magazine

Answer 54

Behaviour is observed in directly on verbal or written material: 1) Select sample method 2) Select behavioural categories – quantitative or qualitative

Question 55

Advantages and disadvantages of content analysis

Answer 55

– High ecological validity – findings can be replicated and tested for reliability – subjective – biased – culturally biased

Question 56

What is attrition

Answer 56

The loss of participants from a study over time

Question 57

What are cohort effects

Answer 57

A group of participants may have unique characteristics because of time to specific experiences. E.g. people born in the 1950s are different people born in the 1990s

Question 58

What is a control group

Answer 58

Acts as a baseline measurement in an experiment

Question 59

Definition of a quasi-experiment

Answer 59

Researcher is unable to use random allocation because the independent variable is a particular feature of a participant e.g. gender or a mental disorder

Question 60

Advantages and disadvantages of quasi-experiment

Answer 60

– Control of variables when carried out under controlled conditions – more likely to have ecological validity than a lab experiment – participant location is not random – difficult to prove causal relationship as the independent variable isn’t being directly manipulated

Question 61

What are research aims

Answer 61

The aims of the study should be stated before the research begins and are the studies purpose e.g. milligrams in might’ve been to study the effect of authority on obedience

Question 62

What is the dependent variable

Answer 62

The dependent variable is the variable you think will be affected by changes in the independent variable

Question 63

What is the independent variable

Answer 63

The independent variable is the variable directly manipulated by the researcher

Question 64

What is a variable

Answer 64

A variable is a quantity whose value can change

Question 65

What is operationalisation

Answer 65

Operationalisation is describing the process by which the variable will be measured

Question 66

What are the difficulties with operationalisation

Answer 66

Somethings that easy to measures such as height, speed or weight, but how do you measure love

Question 67

What is the purpose of the experimental design

Answer 67

An experimental design must make the hypothesis testable which requires an operationalised dependent variable

Question 68

Why does research it to be highly controlled

Answer 68

To avoid the effects of extraneous variables by exposing all participants to them or removing them all together

Question 69

Define counterbalancing

Answer 69

Counterbalancing is mixing up the order of tasks to solve the problem of order effects

Question 70

What are order effects

Answer 70

If a person is involved in several conditions they may become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come to the second condition

Question 71

What is random allocation

Answer 71

Random allocation mean that every participant has an equal chance of doing either condition in an independent groups design

Question 72

What are standardised instructions

Answer 72

A method of ensuring that every participant is given exactly the same instructions in an experiment to avoid researcher bias

Question 73

Strengths and weaknesses of an overt observation

Answer 73

– More ethically sound because the participants are aware they are being observed – might alter behaviour, causing demand characteristics

Question 74

Strengths and weaknesses of a covert observation

Answer 74

– The participants are more likely to behave naturally and therefore increase validity – gaining ethical approval may be difficult

Question 75

Advantages of a controlled observation

Answer 75

– High reliability of the experiment is easy to replicate – greater control over extraneous variables

Question 76

advantages of a controlled observation

Answer 76

– High and reliability of the experiment is easy to replicate – greater control over extraneous variables

Question 77

Disadvantages of a controlled observation

Answer 77

– Low ecological validity in comparison to naturalistic observations – danger of demand characteristics 

Question 78

What is an operationalised definition

Answer 78

A way of categorising behaviour for an observation by operationalising concepts e.g. what constitutes aggression – punching, kicking, etc.

Question 79

What is rating behaviour

Answer 79

Behaviours are often a matter of degree rather than absolute, so each behaviour could have several categories or a scale to show this

Question 80

What is event sampling And what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 80

A researcher only records the events they are interested in – researchers know exactly what they are looking for – potentially interesting behaviours are ignored

Question 81

What is time sampling and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 81

A researcher only records behaviours at specific intervals – Convenient for the researcher to carry out – interesting behaviours occurring outside of the time intervals would be missed

Question 82

What is interobserver reliability

Answer 82

A method used to ensure that all observers a defining in categorising behaviours in the same way

Question 83

Things to consider and avoid in questionnaire design

Answer 83

– Type of data required – open or closed, qualitative or quantitative – ambiguity of questions – doublebarrelled questions – leading questions – overly complicated questions

Question 84

Things to consider in data analysis

Answer 84

– Adequate data sampling to ensure representative nurse – careful use of language and operationalised definitions – researcher bias to be avoided

Question 85

What is primary data

Answer 85

Information collected during a research is direct observations of participants

Question 86

What is secondary data

Answer 86

Information collected from other studies

Question 87

What is a meta analysis

Answer 87

This is the summarising of the results of a number of different studies

Question 88

What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative data

Answer 88

– Difficult to analyse because of the level of detail – low in reliability – high in validity

Question 89

What is a pilot study

Answer 89

small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements

Question 90

What are correlations

Answer 90

- Correlations simply describe the relationship between two variables in statistical terms, but it is not a research method in itself. - Data collected from various research methods such as observations, questionnaires, and experiments can be analysed to see if there is a relationship between two variables. - An example of a correlation is the relationship between hours spent revising for an exam and the grade attained.

Question 91

What are covariables

Answer 91

- Unlike experiments which have an independent variable and a dependent variable, correlations are described in terms of covariables. - This is because both variables in a correlation vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.

Question 92

What are positive or negative correlations

Answer 92

- Correlations can be positive or negative. - A positive correlation describes a relationship in which both variables increase together. - A negative correlation describes a relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases. - For example, the relationship between hours spent revising for an exam and the grade attained is a positive correlation. This is because as hours spent revising increase, then the result attained also increases.

Question 93

Describe correlation coefficients

Answer 93

- The strength of a correlation is described as a correlation coefficient. - Coefficients range from -1.0 to +1.0, with a coefficient of less than zero describing a negative correlation and a coefficient above zero describing a positive correlation. - A good rule of thumb is to consider of 0.0 to 0.3 as weak, 0.3 to 0.7 as moderate, and above 0.7 as strong.

Question 94

What are scattergrams

Answer 94

- Correlations are plotted on graphs called scattergrams (also called scatter plots or scatter graphs). - A scattergram has one covariable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis, and a straight line that best fits the points is plotted (a line of best fit). - The gradient of the line is the same as the correlation coefficient.

Question 95

Strengths and weaknesses of correlational research

Answer 95

Strengths: - Quick and easy. Correlations are a quick and easy way to see whether or not there is a relationship between two variables that is worth exploring further. If a correlation is found it may be worth investigating why there is a correlation. - Describes the strength of a relationship. A correlation coefficient is a simple and objective way to describe the strength of a relationship between two variables. Expressing it as a precise number makes it clear and easy to understand. Weaknesses: - Correlations do not equal causation. This means that it is impossible to claim that one covariable actually causes the other covariable, as it could be that a third unknown variable (a mediating variable) is causing both variables to change together. It is very difficult to establish cause and effect. - Correlations can be misused. As finding a correlation between two variables tells us very little other than that a relationship exists, it is very difficult to make accurate conclusions about the causes of the relationship. Media, governments, and even sometimes scientists often make wild claims based on correlations that sound convincing to the public and support an argument, but in reality the relationship could mean something completely different.