Research methods key language Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
Aim
A
states the intent of the study in general terms
2
Q
Bar chart
A
Shows frequency data for discreet variables
3
Q
Behavioural categories
A
It is used when observing structured behaviours. It includes breaking a Behaviour (anger) into behavioural categories (kicking, hitting) so it can be observed and measured
4
Q
Case study
A
Where sociologists investigate a specific person or group in greater detail to gather a representative sample
5
Q
Closed / Open questions
A
Yes or no answered questions, or questions where there is a specific answer
6
Q
Co-variables
A
Variables investigated in a correlation
7
Q
Concurrent validity
A
Comparing a new test with an existing test to see if there are concordant or similar results; if the new test is similar then it has concurrent validity
8
Q
Confidentiality
A
Participants have the right to expect that all their data is confidential and anonymous during a research study
9
Q
Confounding variable
A
Extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure that the true source of the change to the DV.
10
Q
Content analysis
A
Method used to analyze qualitative data and to then change it into quantitative (numerical) data
11
Q
Control group
A
The group that is treated normally and acts as the way that people behave without exposure to experimental treatment
12
Q
Debriefing
A
Taken place after research to tell the true aim of the experiment to the participants; the aim of this is to return the person to the same state they were in before the experiment
13
Q
Deception
A
Misleading the participants for the purpose of the study
14
Q
Controlled observation
A
Observation study where researchers control some variables – often in a laboratory setting
15
Q
Correlational analysis
A
Mathematical technique where researchers see whether two co-variable scores are related
16
Q
Counterbalancing
A
Technique used to deal with order effect when using a repeated measures design. Participant sample is halved; one half completing two conditions in one order and the second half in the reverse order
17
Q
Covert / Overt observation
A
Covert – when the people are unaware their behavior is being watched Overt – when participants give permission for their behavior to be observed
18
Q
Critical value
A
A numerical value which determines whether their their calculated value is significant
19
Q
Demand characteristics
A
Occur when participants try to make sense of the data and accordingly to support the research; it can falsify data as that therefore means that participants act differently to try and prove the hypothesis true
20
Q
Dependent variable
A
The variable that the researcher measures; changed by the manipulation of the independent variable
21
Q
Descriptive statistics
A
Analyses data to help describe, show or summarize in a meaningful way e.g. measures of dispersion
22
Q
Directional hypothesis
A
One-tailed hypothesis that states direction of difference or relationship (e.g. boys more helpful than girls)
23
Q
Double blind control
A
where neither the recipient nor the participant knows which is getting the treatment or placebo
24
Q
Ecological validity
A
External validity that refers to extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting
25
Ecological validity
External validity that refers to extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting
26
Ethical guidelines
Rules by which all psychologists should operate, including researchers
27
Ethical issues
Three types in psychological research: deception, lack of informed consent or lack of protection of participants
28
Event sampling
Used to sample behaviour in observational research; when an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs
29
Experimental group
Participants who receive the treatment of interest; receive the IV
30
External validity
The extent study results apply to context beyond the original study
31
Extraneous variable
Any variable, other than IV, that might affect the result (DV)
32
Face validity
Way to assess whether something measures what it claims to measure
33
Field experiment
Experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
34
Histogram
Graph used for continuous data; no space between bars (unlike bar chart)
35
Hypothesis
Testable prediction about variables in a study; including IV and DV
36
Independent groups design
Experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the experiment; random allocation is used to put patients to ensure random and prevent bias
37
Independent variable
Variable that researcher manipulates and assumed to have direct effect on the dependent variable
38
Inferential statistics
Way of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow researcher to make conclusion about whether a hypothesis was supported by results
39
Informed consent
Psychologists ensuring that all participants are helped to understand all aspects of research before giving consent to participate
40
Inter-observer reliability
refers to extent when two or more observers are watching and recording behaviour in the same way
41
Internal validity
Whether conclusions about cause and effect relationships within a study are valid
42
Interval level data
Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
43
Investigator effects
Where a researcher (un(consciously)) acts in a way to support their prediction; type of bias
44
Laboratory experiment
Conducted under controlled conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the IV to measure the effect on the DV
45
Matched pairs design
Experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, e.g. age and IQ
46
Mean
Average by adding all values together and dividing by the number of values
47
Measures of central tendency
Descriptive statistics that depict the overall ‘central’ trend of a set of data. Three key measures: mean, median, mode
48
Median
A measure of central tendency that is calculated by finding the middle score when a set of data is put in numerical order
49
Meta-analysis
Where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion
50
Mode
A measure of central tendency that is calculated by reporting the most frequently occurring number in a data set; there can be more than one
51
Natural experiment
Experiments carried out in natural conditions, so the research is unable to change the IV and so it examines the effect of a naturally occurring variable on the DV
52
Naturalistic observation
Research method in which the researcher studies behaviour in natural setting without intervention or manipulation
53
Negative correlation
Two variables are related; as one increases the other decreases
54
Nominal level data
Frequency or count data that consists of number of participants falling into categories
55
Non-directional hypothesis
A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of difference or relationship
56
Normal distribution
Arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forma a bell-shaped pattern, where mean/median/mode falls in the center at the peak
57
Observed value
the value observed from conducting the statistical test
58
Observer bias
When the observer knows the aims of the study or hypothesis and allows this knowledge to influence their observations
59
Operationalising variables
clearly outlining the IV and DV in terms of how they are manipulated and measured
60
Opportunity sample
A sampling technique used to select participants from a target group to take part in a research study; for anyone who is available and willing to take par
61
Order effects
Occurs in a repeated measures design and refers to how positioning of tasks influences outcome e.g. boredom effect on a task
62
Ordinal level data
Data that is presented in rank order e.g. ascending
63
Participant observation
When researchers observe but also interact with subjects and play a part in their daily lives which can overt or cover the latter
64
Peer review
Process before a study is published to check quality and validity of research, and it pays contribution; these are checked by experts in that field of psychology
65
Pilot study
a trial run of a research method with a small sample to ensure the method will work
66
Positive correlation
Two variables are related; the two increase or decrease together
67
Presumptive consent
Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample and asking whether they would agree to take part in the study
68
Primary data
The data that has been generated by the researcher themselves
69
Protection of participants
Participants physical and mental health should be protected, including stress
70
Qualitative data
Non-numerical language based data collected through interviews, open questions and content analysis, allowing researchers to see more insight into nature of participants
71
Quantitative data
Numerical data that can statistically analyzed; such as closed/rating questions
72
Quasi experiment
They contain a naturally occurring IV, but is a difference between people that already exist (e.g. age, gender); the researcher examines the effect of this on the dependent variable
73
Questionnaire
A type of self-report technique where participants fill in a sheet of questions, providing information of thoughts, behaviours, and feelings
74
Random sampling
Where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, attempting to remove any bias that may take place
75
Range
Measure of dispersion; distance between the highest and lowest value in sets of scores
76
Reliability
Measure of wheter something stays the same; to test the consistency
77
Repeated measures design
Where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment
78
Representative sample
a sample that closely matches the target populatopn as a whole for key variables and characteristics
79
Right to withdraw
Participants must be aware that they are allowed to leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part
80
Sample
A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation
81
Scattergram
a graphical display that shows correlation between two sets of data by plotting dots to represent each pair of scores. They indicate the strength and direction of the correlation
82
Secondary data
Information that someone else has collected
83
Semi-structured interview
They contain mostly prepared questions that can also add additional questions; creating rich qualitative data
84
Sign test
Non-parametric statistical test of difference which allows a researcher to determine the significance of their study
85
Significance
If the result of the statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
86
Single-blind control
When participants are not told the true purpose of the research
87
Skewed distribution
Where frequency data is not spread evenly and is clustered at one end
88
Social desirability bias
Participants behaviours are changed by themselves to be seen in a more positive light; hiding their true self
89
Standard deviation
Measure of dispersion that shows the spread of scores around the mean
90
Standardised instructions
Instructions given to each participant to be kept identical; prevents experimenter bias
91
Standardised procedures
In all research all the participants are treated the same; fair treatment
92
Stratified sample
Researcher divides the target group into sections, each representing a key group in the final sample
93
Structured / unstructured
interview
Structured interviews are where questions are decided in advance and asked in the same order for everyone; unstructured is where the interview is like a conversation; little decided in advance for qualitative data
94
Structured / unstructured
observation
Structured observation is a method where an event is observed in its natural setting and noted by the researcher; unstructured is when observation takes place without a plan beforehand
95
Systematic sample
Where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
96
Target population
The group that researchers draw the sample from and to generalise findings to
97
Temporal validity
Type of external validity that refers to validity of findings in relation to the progression of time e.g. whether a finding from 1951 applies today
98
Test-retest reliability
Includes the degree to which test results are consistent over time when the same participants take the same test at different times
99
Thematic analysis
Method for analyzing qualitative data that involves identifying and reporting patterns within the material e.g. TV adverts, interview scripts
100
Time sampling
Method of sampling behaviour in observation study and where an observer records behaviour at certain intervals e.g. every 10 seconds
101
Type 1 error
A false positive; when accepting the hypothesis when it’s false
102
Type 2 error
A false negative; when accepting the null hypothesis when its false
103
Validity
Whether something is true or legitimate. There are two types: internal and external. Internal is a measure of whether results are solely affected by changes to the IV. External is whether data is generalized to other situations outside of the research environment
104
Volunteer sample
When participants choose to join the research, so the group is more generalised
105
Operationalise
To make a concept measurable
106
Strengths of qualitative data
- indepth detail insight
- Context and so more valid
-Meanings and motives
-Doesnt pigeon-hole people
-Can get new information withopen questions
-Useful for investigation sensitive situations
107
Limitations of qualitative data
- Subjective interpretation of data
- Large amounts of data to analyse
- Time consuming
- Unrepresentative as often results in small samples
- Difficult to genersalise results to other settings
108
Strenghts of quantative data
- Can look for cause and effect
- You can make comparisons and see patterns and trends
- Easy to analyse
- Large sample / generalizable
109
Weaknesses of quantative
- Can distort the truth
- Lacks validity / Pigeon holes/ doenst give scope for full answer
- Does not give context
- Easy to be bias/ you are likely to find what you are looking for and statistics from another source may have a deliberate bias.
110
Inter-rater reliability
Inter-rater reliability, often termed inter-observer reliability, refers to the extent to which different raters or evaluators agree in assessing a particular phenomenon, behavior, or characteristic. It’s a measure of consistency and agreement between individuals scoring or evaluating the same items or behaviors.
High inter-rater reliability indicates that the findings or measurements are consistent across different raters, suggesting the results are not due to random chance or subjective biases of individual raters.
111
Open questions
Allows the participant to answer however he/she wishes and generate qualtative data
112
Closed questions
Restrict the participants to a predetermined set of responses and generates quantitative data
