Research Methods - P2 Flashcards

Question

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS of the independent groups design - AO3 How do you overcome limitations?

Answer 1

S - No order effects S- Participants are also less likely to guess their aims. L- The participants who occupy the different groups aren't the same in terms of participant variables L- Twice as many participants are used, which is time consuming. L- Differences could lead to confounding variables, which decreases accuracy. Radom allocation would help overcome the limits

Answer 2

S- Participant variables are controlled, therefore higher validity S- fewer participants are needed, therefore less time spent recruiting them L- Participants have to do the two tasks and the order of order of tasks may have a significant effect: Order effects Counterbalancing, so switching order

Answer 3

S- Single condition, so order effects and demand characteristics are less common L- participants can never be matched exactly L- Time consuming and expensive L- Order effects Using identical twins can decrease this

Answer 4

- Laboratory experiment. - Field experiment. - Natural experiment. - Quasi-experiment.

Answer 5

- A controlled environment where extraneous and confounding variables can be regulated. - Participants go to the researcher. - The IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded.

Answer 6

- This means that the effect of EVsand CVs on the DV can be minimised. - Cause + effect between IV and DV can be demonstrated (high internal validity)

Answer 7

- Greater control means less chance that new EVs introduced. - This means that findings can be confirmed, supporting their validity

Answer 8

- The controlled lab environment may be rather artificial + participants are aware they are being studied - Thus behaviour may not be ‘natural’ and can’t be generalised to everyday life (low external validity)

Answer 9

- These are cues in the experimental situation that invite a particular response from participants - The findings may be explained by these cues rather than the effect of the IV (low internal validity)

Answer 10

- A natural setting - Researcher goes to participants. - The IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded.

Answer 11

- Participants more comfortable and behaviour more authentic. - Results may be more generalisable to everyday life.

Answer 12

- They are more likely to behave as they normally do, so the findings can be generalised. - The study has greater external validity.

Answer 13

- Observed changes in the DV may not be due to the IV, but to CVs/EVs instead - It is more difficult to establish cause and effect than in the lab.

Answer 14

- Participants in a field experiment may not have given informed consent. - This is an invasion of participants' privacy, which raises ethical issues.

Answer 15

- The experimenter does not manipulate the IV - It does change, but the change is made by the experimenter - someone or something else causes the IV to vary. - DV may be naturally occurring or maybe devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or a lab

Answer 16

- It may be unethical to manipulate the IV e.g. studying the effects of institutionalisation on children. - A natural experiment may be the only way causal research can be done for such topics.

Answer 17

- Natural experiments involve real-world issues, such as the effect of a natural disaster on stress levels. - This means the findings are more relevant to real experiences.

Answer 18

- Any natural events are one-offs and this reduces the opportunity for research. - This may limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations.

Answer 19

- The experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition, as the IV is pre-existing. - May result in CVs that aren't controlled. e.g. Romanian orphans adopted early May also be the friendly ones.

Answer 20

- IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply just exists - DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be devised by the experimenter + naturally measured in the field or a lab

Answer 21

- Often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore shares some of the strengths of lab experiments. - This means, for example, replication is possible.

Answer 22

- In a quasi-experiment the IV is a difference between people, e.g. people with and without autism. - This means that comparisons between different types of people can be made.

Answer 23

- The experimenter has no control over which participants are placed in which condition, as the IV is pre-existing. - Participant variables may have caused the change in the DV acting as a CV.

Answer 24

- As with a natural experiment, the researcher does not manipulate/control the experiment. - We cannot say for certain that any change in the DV was due to the IV.

Answer 25

- Random sample. - Systematic sample. - Stratified sample. - Opportunity sample. - Volunteer sample.

Answer 26

The large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying. For example, college students from the Northwest.

Answer 27

It is usually not possible to include all members of the population in the study, so a smaller group is selected - the sample.

Answer 28

The sample that is drawn should be representative of the population so generalisations can be made.

Answer 29

Most samples are biassed in that certain groups (e.g., Men, students, professionals, etc.) may be over- or under-represented.

Answer 30

- Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected - Lottery method. All members of the target population are given a number + placed in a hat or computer/phone randomiser used

Answer 31

- S = potentially unbiased. Means that CVs/EVs are controlled, which enhances internal validity - L = Time-consuming and may not work. A complete list of population is hard to get + some participants may refuse to take part

Answer 32

- Participants are selected using a set ‘pattern’ (sampling frame) e.g. list in alphabetical order - Every nth person is selected from a list of the target population

Answer 33

- S = Unbiased. The first item is usually selected at random. Objective method - L = Time and effort. A complete list of the population is required, so may as well use random sampling

Answer 34

- Strata; sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within a population - Subgroups are identified, e.g. gender or age groups. The relative percentages of the population are reflected in the sample

Answer 35

- S = Representative method. The characteristics of the target population are represented. Generalisability more likely than other methods - L = stratification is not perfect. Strata cannot reflect all ways in which people are different. Complete representation is not possible

Answer 36

- People who are simply most available, i.e. the ones who are nearest/easiest to obtain - Ask people nearby, e.g. ask the students in your class to take part or ask people who walk past you in a shopping centre

Answer 37

- S = Quick method. Opportunity sampling is convenient because you just make use of the people who are closest. This makes it cheaper + one of the most popular sampling methods - L = Inevitably biassed. The sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it’s drawn from a very specific area, such as one street in one town. Means the findings cannot be generalised

Answer 38

- In a volunteer sample, participants select themselves - Advertise. For example, place an advert in a newspaper or ask people to put hands up to volunteer

Answer 39

- S = Participants are willing. Participants have selected themselves + know how much time and effort is involved. Likely to engage more than people stopped in the street - L = Volunteer vias. Participants share certain traits, e.g. want to be helpful. Respond to cues and generalisation limitedb

Answer 40

When a conflict exists between the rights of participants and the aims of the research. - BPS Code of Conduct is a quasi-legal document to protect participants based on 4 principles: Respect, Competence, Responsibility and Integrity. - Ethics Committee weighs up Costs (e.g. Potential harm) and benefits (e.g. Value of research) before deciding whether a study should go ahead.

Answer 41

Issue: Informed judgement about whether to take part. But may reveal aims. Sign consent form where appropriate. Seek parental consent. Alternative forms of consent are: - Presumptive: Ask a similar group. - Prior general: agreed to be deceived. - Retrospective: Get consent after the study.

Answer 42

Issue: Misleading or withholding information so consent is not informed. But mild deception OK. At the end of a study, participants should be given a debrief where they are advised of: - The true aims of the investigation. - Details that were not given during the study e.g. existence of other groups or conditions. - What their data will be used for - Their right to withhold data.

Answer 43

Issue: Participants should be at no more risk than they would be in everyday life. - Should be given the right to withdraw at each stage of the research process. - Should be reassured that their behaviour was typical/normal during the debriefing. - You should provide counselling if participants have been e.g. distressed.

Answer 44

Issue: We have the right to control information about ourselves. If this is invaded, confidentiality should be respected. - If personal details are held, these must be protected (a legal requirement). Usually no personal details are recorded. - Researchers refer to participants using numbers, initials or false names. - Participants' personal data cannot be shared with other researchers.

Answer 45

- Illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two Co-variables.

Answer 46

- Co-variable is on the X axis, the other is on the Y axis.

Answer 47

- Positive correlation - co-variables increase together. - Negative correlation - one co-variable increases, the other decreases - Zero correlation - no relationship between two variables

Answer 48

- In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV. - In correlation, there is no manipulation of variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated.

Answer 49

Useful starting point for research. - By assessing the strength and direction of a relationship, correlations provide a measure of how 2 variables are related. - If variables are strongly related, it may suggest hypotheses for future research.

Answer 50

Relatively economical. - Unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and can use secondary data. e.g., government statistics. - So correlations are less time-consuming than experiments.

Answer 51

No cause and effect. - Correlations are often presented as casual, e.g. by the media, when they only show how 2 variables are related. - This leads to false conclusions about causes of behaviour.

Answer 52

Intervening variables. - Another untested variable may explain the relationship between co-variables. - They also lead to false conclusions.

Answer 53

- A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the DV.

Answer 54

Capture what people do. - People often act differently from how they say they will in self-report methods. - Observations are useful as they give insight into spontaneous behaviour.

Answer 55

Risk of observer bias. - Researchers' interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. - Bias can be reduced using more than one observer.

Answer 56

- Naturalistic and controlled observation. - Covert and overt observation. - Participant and non-participant observation.

Answer 57

Takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur.

Answer 58

High external validity. - In a natural context, behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous. - More generalisable to everyday life.

Answer 59

Low control. - There may be uncontrolled CVs/EVs. - Makes it more difficult to detect patterns.

Answer 60

Some control/manipulation of variables, including control of CVs/EVs.

Answer 61

Can be replicated. - More easily repeated due to standardised procedures. - Findings can be checked to see if they occur again.

Answer 62

May have low external validity. - Behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting. - Findings cannot be applied to everyday experience.

Answer 63

Participants are unaware they are being studied.

Answer 64

Demand characteristics are reduced. - Participants do not know they are being watched, so their behaviour will be more natural. - Increases the internal validity of the findings.

Answer 65

Ethically questionable. - People may not want behaviour recorded even in public. - Participants’ right to privacy may be affected.

Answer 66

Are aware they are being studied.

Answer 67

More ethically acceptable. - Parents have given their consent to be studied. - They have the right to withdraw if they wish.

Answer 68

Demand characteristics. - Knowledge of being studied influences behaviour. - Reduces the internal validity of the findings.

Answer 69

Researcher becomes part of the group they're studying.

Answer 70

Can lead to greater insight. - Researcher experiences the situation as the participants do. - This enhances the external validity of the findings.

Answer 71

Possible loss of objectivity. - The researcher may identify too strongly with those they're studying. - They reduce the external validity of the findings.

Answer 72

Researcher remain separate from the group they're studying.

Answer 73

More objective. - Researcher maintains an objective distance, so less chance of bias. - May increase the internal validity of the findings.

Answer 74

Loss of insight. - Researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying. - May reduce the external validity of the findings.

Answer 75

- Behavioural categories - Event sampling - Time sampling

Answer 76

The target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories. - this is similar to operationalisation

Answer 77

Difficult to make clear and unambiguous. - Categories should be self-evident and not overlap. Not always possible to achieve. - ‘Smiling’ and ‘grinning’ would be poor categories.

Answer 78

Dustbin categories. - All forms of behaviour should be in the list and not one ‘dustbin’. - ‘Dumped’ behaviours go unrecorded.

Answer 79

A target behaviour/event is recorded every time it occurs.

Answer 80

Useful for infrequent behaviour. - The researcher will still ‘pick up’ behaviours that do not occur at regular intervals. - Such behaviours could easily be missed using time sampling.

Answer 81

Complex behaviour oversimplified. - If the event is too complex, important details may go unrecorded. - This may affect the validity of the findings.

Answer 82

Observations are made at regular intervals, e.g. once every 15 seconds.

Answer 83

Reduces the number of observations. - Rather than recording everything that is seen (i.e. continuous) data is recorded at certain intervals. - The observation is more structured and systematic.

Answer 84

May be unrepresentative. - The researcher may miss important details outside of the timescale. - May not reflect the whole behaviour.

Answer 85

- Questionnaires - Interviews (structured and unstructured)

Answer 86

They are made up of a pre-set list of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds - They can be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV

Answer 87

Can be distributed to lots of people - gather large amounts of data quickly and researcher need not to be present when completed - reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost-effective

Answer 88

Straightforward to analyse - especially if closed, fixed-choice questions are used - statistical data can easily be converted to graphs and charts for comparison

Answer 89

Responses may not always be truthful - respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light - thus social desirability bias is possible

Answer 90

Response bias - respondents may favour a particular kind of response, e.g. they always agree - this means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way

Answer 91

face -to-face or online interaction between an interviewer and interviewee

Answer 92

List of pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order

Answer 93

Easy to replicate - straightforward to replicate because of standardised format - the format also reduces differences between interviewers

Answer 94

Interviewers cannot elaborate - interviewers cannot deviate from the topic or explain their questions - this may limit the richness of data collected

Answer 95

No set questions, there is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free-flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate

Answer 96

There is greater flexibility - unlike a structured interview, points can be followed up as they arise - more likely to gain insight into interviewee’s worldview and collect unexpected information

Answer 97

Increased risk of interviewer bias - closer dialogue between interviewer and interviewee - means more opportunity for unconscious cues

Answer 98

A list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers ask further questions based on previous answers

Answer 99

Designing questionnaires includes the use of open and closed questions

Answer 100

- avoid jargon: ‘do you agree that maternal deprivation in infanthood inevitably leads to affectionless psychopathy?’ - avoid double-barrelled questions: ‘do you agree that footballers are overpaid and should give 20% of their wages to charity?’ - avoid leading questions: ‘do you agree that boxing is barbaric?’

Answer 101

Respondent has limited choices - Data produced tends to be quantitative, e.g. ‘how many cigarettes do you smoke in a day? 0-10, 11-29, 21-30+’ - But can produce qualitative data, e.g. ‘do you smoke? yes/no, and then convert to quantitative’

Answer 102

Easy to analyse - can produce graphs and charts for comparison - makes it easier to draw conclusions

Answer 103

Responses are restricted - forced into an answer that may not represent true feelings - may reduce the validity of the findings

Answer 104

Respondent provides own answers expressed in words - Data produced tends to be qualitative, e.g. ‘why did you start smoking?’ This question would produce a range of personal answers

Answer 105

Responses not restricted - answer more likely to provide detailed, unexpected information - likely to have more external validity than statistics

Answer 106

Difficult to analyse - wider variety of answers than produced by closed questions - may be forced to reduce data to statistics

Answer 107

An interview schedules, quiet room, rapport and ethics

Answer 108

A standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover can reduce interviewer bias.

Answer 109

Will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up

Answer 110

Begin with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed

Answer 111

Remind interviewees that answers will be treated in confidence

Answer 112

A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of a research design (procedure, questionnaires, etc.) using a small number of participants. - it is used in all types of research

Answer 113

To find out if certain things don’t work so you can correct them before spending time and money on the real thing

Answer 114

- qualitative data and quantitative data - primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis

Answer 115

Non numerical data expressed in words, e.g. an extract from a diary.

Answer 116

Richness of detail. - Much broader in scope than quantitative data. - More meaningful, greater external validity.

Answer 117

Difficult to analyse. - Hard to identify patterns and make comparisons. - Leads to subjective interpretation and researcher bias.

Answer 118

Numerical data e.g. Reaction time or number of mistakes.

Answer 119

Easier to analyse. - Can draw graphs and calculate averages. - So comparisons between groups can be made.

Answer 120

Narrower in meaning. - Expresses less detail than qualitative data. - Lower external validity - may be less like ‘real life’.

Answer 121

‘First-hand’ data collected for the purpose of the investigation.

Answer 122

Fits the job. - study designed to extract only the data needed. - Information is directly relevant to research aims.

Answer 123

Requires time and effort. - Designing and collating and questionnaires takes time and expense. - Secondary data can be assessed within minutes.

Answer 124

Collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research.

Answer 125

Inexpensive. - The desired information may already exist. - Requires minimal effort making it inexpensive.

Answer 126

Quality may be poor. - Information may be outdated or incomplete. - Challenges the validity of any conclusions.

Answer 127

A type of secondary data that involves combining data from a large number of studies. Calculation of effect size.

Answer 128

Increases validity of conclusions. - The eventual sample size is much larger than individual samples. - Increases the extent to which generalisations can be made.

Answer 129

Publication bias - Researchers may not select all relevant studies, leaving out negative or non significant results. - Therefore, conclusions may lack validity.

Answer 130

- Mean. - Median. - mode

Answer 131

Arithmetic average. Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores.

Answer 132

Sensitive measure. - Includes all the scores/values in the data set within the calculation. - Represents data set better than median or mode.

Answer 133

May be unrepresentative. - One very large or small number makes it distorted. - The median or the mode tend not to be so easily distorted.

Answer 134

Middle value places scores in ascending order and select middle value. If there are two values in the middle, the mean of these is calculated.

Answer 135

Less affected by extreme scores. - The median is only focused on the middle value. - In some cases it may be more representative of the data set as a whole.

Answer 136

Less sensitive than the mean. - Actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored. - Extreme values may be important.

Answer 137

Most frequent or common value used with categorical/nominal data.

Answer 138

Relevant to categorical data. - When data is discrete, i.e. represented in categories. - Times the mode is the only appropriate measure.

Answer 139

An overly simple measure. - The mode may be at one extreme. - It is not a useful way of describing data when there are many modes.

Answer 140

- range - standard deviation

Answer 141

The difference between highest to lowest value. (Sometimes one is added if values had been rounded up or down)

Answer 142

Easy to calculate. - Values in order and subtract largest from the smallest. - Simple formula, easier than the standard deviation.

Answer 143

Does not account for the distribution of the scores. - The range does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly. - The standard deviation is a much better measure of dispersion in this respect.

Answer 144

Measure of the average spread around the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the data is.

Answer 145

More precise than the range. - Includes all values within the calculation. - Therefore, more accurate picture of the overall distribution of data set.

Answer 146

May be misleading. - Can be distorted by extreme values. - Also, extreme values may not be revealed, unlike with the range.

Answer 147

- tables - bar charts - histograms - scattergrams

Answer 148

- Raw scores displayed in columns and rows - a summary paragraph beneath the table explains the findings and draws conclusions

Answer 149

- categories (discrete data) are usually placed along the x-axis and frequency on the y-axis (or can be reversed) - the height of each column represents the frequency of that item

Answer 150

bars touch each other (in bar charts they don't) - data is continuous rather than discrete. There is a true zero

Answer 151

- used for correlational analysis. Each dot represents one pair of related data. Illustrates strength and direction of correlation - the data on both axes must be continuous

Answer 152

- normal distribution - skewed distribution (negatively skewed and positively skewed)

Answer 153

- symmetrical, bell-shaped curve. Most items are in the middle area of the curve with very few at the extreme ends - the mean, median and mode all occupy the same mid-point of the curve

Answer 154

distributions that lean to one side or the other because most items are either at the lower or upper end of the distribution

Answer 155

- most of the distribution is concentrated towards the right of the graph, resulting in a long tail on the left - the mode is the highest point of the peak, median comes next then mean is dragged across to the left (if scores are arranged from lowest to highest)

Answer 156

- most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph, resulting in a long tail on the right - the mode is the highest point of the peak, median comes next then the mean is dragged across to the right (if scores are arranged from lowest to highest))

Answer 157

Estimates - give a number to just 1 or 2 significant figures Order of magnitude - calculate standard form and compare exponents

Answer 158

The difference/association between 2 sets of data is greater than what would occur by chance, i.e. it is a meaningful result - to find out if the difference/association us significant we need to use a statistical test

Answer 159

Probability (p) is about likelihood. - The accepted level of probability in psychology is 0.05, a significance level of 5%. This is the level at which a researcher decides to accept or reject the null hypothesis. - Even though psychologists may find statistically significant differences/ relationships within data, they can never find statistical certainties. This is why psychologists use phrases such as ‘this suggests’, rather than ‘this proves’.

Answer 160

- The researcher uses a statistical test to produce a calculated value. - The calculated value is compared with a critical value to decide whether the result is significant or not. - The critical values for a particular test are given in a table of critical values.

Answer 161

To find the critical value, need to know: 1. The significance level (usually 0.05 or 5%). 2. The number of participants in the investigation (the N value) or the degrees of freedom (df). 3. Their hypothesis is directional (one-tailed test) or non directional (two-tailed test).

Answer 162

- Used to analyse the difference in scores between related items e.g. The same participant is tested twice (Repeated measures). - Can be used with nominal data (or better)

Answer 163

1. The score for condition B is subtracted from the condition A should produce the sign of difference (either a + or a -). 2. Add up the numbers of pluses and the numbers of minuses. 3. Participants who achieved the same score in condition A and condition B should be disregarded and deducted from the N value. 4. The S value is the total of the less frequent sign.

Answer 164

If S is equal to or less than the critical value, then S is significant and the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted at the 5% level of certainty.

Answer 165

- Before publication, all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts, ‘peers’, in the field. - These experts should be objective and unknown to the researcher.

Answer 166

- Funding: Allocate research funding. - Validation of the quality and relevance of research. - Improvements and amendments are suggested.

Answer 167

Protects quality of published research. - Minimises possibility of fraudulent research, and means published research is of the highest quality. - Serves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases the credibility and status of the subject.

Answer 168

Anonymity may be used to criticise rival research. - A minority of reviewers may use their anonymous status to criticise rival researchers. - Often there is competition for limited research funding, so this may be an issue.

Answer 169

Publication bias. - Tendency for editors of journals to want to publish ‘headline-grabbing’ findings. - That research that does not meet this criterion is ignored.

Answer 170

Ground-breaking research may be buried. - Reviewers may be much more critical of research that contradicts their own view - Pair review may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines.

Answer 171

The findings of psychological research can benefit our financial prosperity

Answer 172

- Attachment research into the role of the father - The development of treatment for mental disorder

Answer 173

- Recent research has stressed the importance of the father in a child's healthy psychological development. - This may promote more flexible working arrangements in the family. - This means that modern parents are better equipped to contribute more effectively to the economy.

Answer 174

- A third of all days off work are caused by mental disorders such as depression. - Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders means that people have access to therapies or psychotherapeutic drugs such as SSRIs - People with mental disorders can manage their condition effectively, return to work and contribute to the economy.

Answer 175

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables

Answer 176

A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variable

Research Methods - P2 Flashcards

(200 cards)