Resource Security Theory

Question 1

Difference between stock, flow + critical flow resources

Answer 1

• Stock resources= can run out + can’t be replenished in the foreseeable future= fossil fuels- take millions of years to form
• Flow resources= can be replenished- will never run out + don’t rely on human management= wind + solar
• Critical flow resources= dependent on human management + if use doesn’t go below their ability to reproduce= wood

Question 2

Resource/reserve

Answer 2

• Resource= entire supply of a material=> inc bits that haven’t been extracted + aren’t economically viable to extract
• Reserve= amount of resource that’s economically viable to extract

Question 3

4 types of reserves/resoruces

Answer 3

-Measured reserves
Size of reserve has been measured + is known accurately
-Indicated reserves
Size of reserve has been partly measured + there is an estimate of actual extent
-Inferred resources
Resources have been identified (limited samples of local geology) but haven’t been measured
-Possible resources
Resources are thought to exist (based on knowledge of local geology) but haven’t been sampled

Question 4

What is security of a resource

Answer 4

Security of supply of resources is a combo of physical risks (accessibility of resources available) + geopolitical risks (conc of production in a small number of countries- confidence individual county has in trading with producers who want to apply market power)

Question 5

Cycle of natural resource development

Answer 5

Exploration=> locating potential new resource= satellite imagery
Evaluation=> decide if it’s viable to extract= existing market conditions + cost of production (developed countries= assess env impacts)
Construction=> licenses awards + infrastructure is constructed- roads/pipelines
Exploitation=> reserve exploited until all viable reserve is gone=> life span depends on type + quantity of resource
Development=> new methods of extraction used to increase life span (secondary/tertiary oil recovery)
Exhaustion=> resources becomes so limited- not physically possible or economically viable to extract anymore

Question 6

Resource frontier + example

Answer 6

Place with abundant resources that are being exploited for the first time=> usually haven’t been exploited before because geographically remote or hard to access

• Usually develop as more accessible resources are depleted- demand makes it economically viable to exploit new areas
• New facilities + equipment needed for extraction of resource=> buildings for workers + transport links

The Arctic=> rich resources of oil, natural gas + minerals (gold)

• Hard to access=> most gas + oil resources are offshore
• Little infrastructure=> extraction + transportation is difficult
• Env is challenging=> sea ice- transport is difficult + cold winter storm- equipment + workers at risk
• Extraction may damage fragile env
• Large oil reserves at Prudhoe Bay=> northern Alaska= Trans-Alaska pipeline
• Some resource frontier areas exploitation has stopped=> Shell stopped drilling in Chukchi Sea in Alaska= cost of extracting oil is too high + reserves were smaller than they thought= not economically viable

Question 7

What’s resource peak + explain Hubbert Curve

Answer 7

Time of the max rate of production of a resource from a given reserve or resource as a whole (half of resource used)

Production increases as investment increases (more workers + more equipment) more easily accessed parts of reserve are extracted
Resource peak=> maximum amount of resource extracted
Production begins to decline=> most accessible parts been exhausted + harder to reach parts remain
Resource runs out=> what remains is too difficult/expensive to extract=> production stops

Question 8

How to manage sustainability

Answer 8

Supply side= increasing supply

• Increasing exploration for existing non-renewables
• New tech= more sustainable + cause less env impact
• More sustainable alternatives

Demand side= reducing consumption

• Recycling
• Tech for more efficient use of resources
• Change behaviour/lifestyle=> less wasteful

Question 9

EIA

Answer 9

Env impact assessment=> done before a new development is started= assess potential env effects of development + social/economic/cultural impacts= decide if it can go ahead

-Assess the impact of changing land use on env
-Env factors equally important as economical factors
-Quantify potential env effects of land use change
-Decisions can be made with full knowledge of env consequences
Alternatives for less damaging options

Question 10

EIA example

Answer 10

Rossing Uranium Mine=> Namibia- VERY SUSTAINABLE

• Economically sustainable= 98% of workforce= Namibians- benefit from stability of full time contracts (training, career progression, insurance + pensions)
• Env sustainable=> dust controlled by continual spraying of open pit, roads + tracks. Effluent is treated
• Socially sustainable=> months checks for radioactive contamination

Question 11

Water supply factors=> climate + geology

Answer 11

Climate=
Amount of rainfall= high- more reliable water supply. But too high=> overglow sewers + water treatment plants + increased runoff= reduced water quality- more pollutants in water supplies
Hot climates= high evaporation= water scarcity
Geology=
Rain falls on impermeable rock= runoff / flows on permeable rock= flows through + forms aquifers
If rock contains salts/minerals- dissolve in water- can’t drink/irrigate without treatment

Question 12

Areas of water surplus + scarcity

Areas of low water demand + high water demand

Answer 12

Areas of water surplus=> 
-Climates- regular + plentiful rain
-Effective water treatment + management 
-Low water usage 
Brazil=> high annual rainfall 
Australia=> invest in desalination 

Areas of water scarcity=>
-Arid regions= physical water scarcity 
Egypt 
-Areas with an adequate natural supply of water but unable to fully utilize it= can’t afford to abstract/transport/treat it= economic water scarcity 
Sub-Saharan Africa  

Low water demand=>

• Limited industry= Mongolia
• Lack infrastructure to supply water on tap=> Sub-Saharan Africa

High water demand=>

• Affluent regions=> high domestic use, personal hygiene, recreation + irrigation
• North America + Australia

Question 13

Geopolitics of water

Answer 13

Countries with rapid population growth in areas with severe water shortages= hinder development + impacts on peoples health + QOL

Changes upstream= major impact downstream=>

• Over abstraction= low flows downstream
• Industry= increase pollution
• Farming= increase soil erosion + suspended sediment concentration

Rivers can cross international boundaries (transboundary)=> River Nile runs though 9 countries. Countries up stream have power over downstream

Transboundary aquifers

Climate change= reducing water availability in already water stressed countries=> have to work together to reduce climate change= Paris Agreement

Question 14

Strategies to increase water supply x4

Answer 14

Water diversion + transferee=>

• Water diversion= changing the course of a river so it flows to a different area
• Water transfer schemes= moving water from areas of surplus to areas of shortage between major river catchments- pumped through pipes, tunnels, canals=> can increase water security in receiving areas but increases water stress for area it’s diverted from + infrastructure needed is expensive/env impacts

Water catchment=> collecting water for use
-Rainwater harvesting=> instead of it falling to ground + infiltrating=> intercepted before + stored in tanks

Water storage=> stored in ties of surplus so there’s enough in times of deficit

• Dam across a river valley trap water= reservoir=> ensures consistent flow all year round
• Aswan Dam=> can also provide HEP
• Flood agricultural land + drown settlement=> conflict

Desalination=> removal of salt from sea water

• Heated to evaporate + condensed= distillation or through partially permeable membranes at high pressure= reverse osmosis
• Used in Dubai=> arid area=> 98.8% of freshwater from desalination
• But requires a lot of energy + it’s expensive

Question 15

Strategies to manage water consumption=> domestic + agricultural use

Answer 15

Domestic use=
Water meters= households pay for water they use=> incentive not to waste water
Low flush/dual flush toilets + displacement device (hippo bad)= reduce volume of water used per flush
Water efficient machines (dishwashers)
Collecting rainwater to use on gardens

Agricultural use=
Drip feed irrigation
Mulches= retain water content
Watering early in the morning to reduce evaporation
Control ploughing
Using organic fertilisers= OM retains soil moisture

Question 16

Strategies to manage water consumption=> other sustainable methods

Answer 16

Recycling + greywater= treating used water to make it safe to reuse- irrigation, industry, power plants + toilet flushing. Makes water supplies sustainable= can meet water needs without extracting more water. Greywater= recycles waste water from homes + businesses (showers)= used to water gardens/flush toilets. Clean water isn’t treated unnecessarily= conserves energy

Virtual water trade= virtual water= water that’s been used in the production of something. When products are traded= virtual water is also traded=> being aware of virtual water value of a product= helps countries manage water sustainable=> Middle Eastern countries where water is scare= import foods with high virtual water value from countries with more water

Groundwater management=> make sure quantity + quality is conserved. Amount being extracted can be monitored- make sure its not removed faster than it can be naturally replaced. Farmers encouraged to use less artificial fertilisers + if toxic waste is dumped= fined (reduce pollution.) If aquifers are being overexploited- can be artificially recharged=> injection well- water piped back into depleted aquifers

Afforestation=> reduce run-off + increase rainfall

Question 17

Local water conflict

Answer 17

Local Conflict=> Pepsi Factory, Kerala India

• Factory= source of ongoing water conflict between Pepsi + local people
• Droughts= increased water stress= shortages of drinking water + lack of water for irrigation= loss of crops
• Local people claim factory is making it worse= over-exploiting groundwater + Pepsi deny this
• Local authorities= tried to stop factory extracted as much groundwater=> 2017 they agreed to cut water by 75% while drought conditions conditioned. Protests by local people= demanding plant to be shut down

Question 18

National water conflict

Answer 18

National conflict=> water crisis in Yemen= arid country in western Asia=> very high levels of water stress

• Anger between people in rural communities= uneven availability of water between rural + urban areas=> violent protests
• 2002=> gov intruded law=> landowners to get a license to drill + maintain wells. Tried to introduce register of wells in country. Backlash with farmers=> worried gov would try to control amount of water they could extract from well on their property
• 2009=> gov tried to resist cultivation of QAT= leaf chewed by pop=> irrigation uses 30% of groundwater. Farmers ignored- would lose their income

Question 19

International water conflict

Answer 19

International conflict=> The River Nile

• Source of water for many countries in north east Africa. Conflict between downstream countries (Egypt) that use most of water + upstream countries (Uganda) that want to use more water
• 2011=> Ethiopia starting building Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near border with Sudan=> generate HEP + take more control of river flow=> prevent drought + flooding. Egypt concerned dam will result in loss of lots of water=> evaporation from lake behind dam=> less water will flow into Egypt. Disputes between countries but partial agreement in 2015

Question 20

Future for water resources

Answer 20

Technological=>
Increasing water supply=> improve desalination= cheaper with minimal energy use
Electrodialysis= alternative method to desalinize=> allowing sodium + chlorine ions to pass through a membrane in presence of an electric field- leaving purified water on other side

Env=>
Climate change effects minimised by global efforts
Integrated catchment management=> looking at all aspects of a river catchment + ensure water supply + use are sustainable

Economic=>
MED countries use more water per person but as they become more developed they can afford the tech + infrastructure to get more water

Political=>
Coop with countries that have an abundant supply help countries with shortages
Gov policies=> encourage people to use less water

Question 21

Distribution, production, consumption + trade of ore minerals

Answer 21

-Distribution of ore minerals= uneven across the globe + some are rarer than others

-Production varies globally=> depends on size + accessibility of a countries or mineral revers + whether they can afford to extract
Shifted in past 50 years=> most of developing nations have depleted their reserves=> shift in production of ores to developing nations
Large reserves found in developed countries= Australia + Canada

-Consumption also varies=> depends on wealth of country + major industries
Industrialisation increases consumption esp Chinese economy=> construction projects (Three Gorges Dam)
Development of reliable energy supplies=> national grid of infrastructure= increases copper consumption

-Differences between where ore minerals are produced + where they’re consumed= traded between countries

Question 22

Whats a resource curse

Answer 22

Resource curse= countries with an abundance of non-renewable resources- usually have a lower economic growth + development than resource poor countries=>

• Over dependence on 1 resource= affected by volatile global price fluctuations
• Other parts of the economy (manufacturing) don’t develop
• Control/partial control of resource by large TNC’s= leakages

Question 23

Role of China + TNC’s in geopolitics of minerals

Answer 23

Role of China=> rapid economic + industrial growth= demand has increased supply

• Chinese investment in mining in developing countries (Africa)= infrastructural benefits + investment
• Trade with other developing countries= deals with other emerging countries- Brazil
• Impact on developed countries= China can manufacture large amount of steel economically + with cheap labour= closure of steelworks in other countries

Role of TNC’S in mineral ore distribution=> global distribution is largely controlled by transnational mining cooperation’s

• Rio Tinto= HQ in UK/Australia=> mining operations mainly in Africa, South America + Australia=> iron ore, bauxite, copper + zinc
• Set critieral for reserves that interst them- provide expertise, technology + capital investment to explore + extract ores in developing countries= economic benefits

Question 24

Sources of copper

Answer 24

Different types of copper deposits that form in different conditions=> porphyry deposits= most common + sedimentary deposits are next most common

• Large concentrations=> South America= worlds largest igneous deposits mined. Europe + Asia
• 2014=> Chile was the biggest producer of copper=> 31% of all copper mined
• Global copper production= increasing=> Latin America + Asia- most growth in production. Chile + Peru= investing in mines + producing enough copper to meet demands of major industrial nations=> China
• Less developed nations= becoming more important (Africa)= large sedimentary deposits + porphyry deposits in southeast Asia

Question 25

Properties of copper + end uses

Answer 25

Ductile, Strong + malleable, Good conductor or heat + electricity, Corrosion resistant, Can be combined with other meats to make alloys Electricity=> power stations + electronic machinery Reliability + efficiency of copper conductivity Ductile=> thin wires Water pipework=> Corrosion resistant + can easily be joined by soldered + shaped easily (ductile) Hygiene=> food preparation + plumbing systems Naturally hygienic metal- antibacterial properties=> slows growth of germs like E . Coli Alloys=> harder + stronger than pure copper=> used for industrial purposes Brass= copper + zinc Bronze= copper + tin

Question 26

Whether copper reserve will be exploited

Answer 26

- Richness of reserve=> more copper in are= less rock has to be mined= more cost efficient - Extent of reserve=> is there enough copper to pay for investment required to extract it - Ease of extraction=> reserves close to surface are easier to mine - Location=> if in a remote location cost is increase=> transport costs

Question 27

Extraction costs depend on

Answer 27

-Overburden= rock + soil above deposit is difficult to remove. Open-pit=> blasted away -Water removal=> as depth increases more water flows into mine=> needs pumping out -Depth=> costs increase as depth does Form of deposit=> costs increase if mineral is dispersed irregularly -Cut off ore grade=> lowest ore purity that can be exploited economically

Question 28

Env impacts of major mineral resource extraction scheme

Answer 28

Grasberg mine=> Papua in Indonesia=> SECOND largest copper mine in the world Construction of mine had big impacts on env=> -4km wide open pit=> deforestation + loss in biodiversity -Millions of tonnes of rock dumped in lake Wagon=> loss of aquatic ecosystem -Rock is broken up during mining=> exposed rock can react with oxygen + water= producing strongly acidic solutions= killing veg -Toxic waste from refining process=> released into river system=> destroying aquatic life. Copper accumulates in organisms=> food chain effects Distribution network env impacts=> -New infrastructure=> port, airport, town, roads + pipelines= habitat destruction -Trucks, planes + ships transport copper + waste=> use fossil fuels=> contribute to global warming + acid rain

Question 29

Sustainability issues=> extraction, processing + trade

Answer 29

Extraction=> - Ores that contain the most copper are mined first + run out first=> companies have to mine larger amount of ore to extract same amount of copper= cost of extraction increases, more waste increases + env impact increases - Open pits take up lots of land=> destroys habitats + reduces biodiversity. Many countries require mining companies to restore landscape once minding has finished - Exposed rock reacts with air + water=> acid. Noise + dust pollution - Spills + leaks of toxic substances contaminate water supplies=> LT pollution + threatens water security - Increase of people wanting employment at copper mines=> pressure on existing services. Once they close down=> settlements abandoned + communities broken up Processing=> Ore is crushed, dissolved in acid, filtered + smelted at over 1000 degrees - Produced lots of contaminated waste water=> stored in ponds but can be washed into watercourses by heavy rainfall=> affects ecosystems + human health - Lots of energy needed=> processing plants have own power stations replying on fossil fuels= greenhouse emissions - Smelting releases sulfur dioxide=> acid rain=> kills veg + aquatic life - Recycling to reduce need for processing Trade=> - Countries who's economies reply on copper trade=> badly affected by reduction in copper prices=> Zambia copper prices fell by 20% in 2015- demand for copper in china fell=> Zambia's economic growth halved - Price fluctuations affect investment=> if price of copper falls=> companies won’t search for new reserves or invest in infrastructure=>amount of copper extracted won’t meet demand - Green Trade Alliance (GAT)=> promote env sustainability without compromising competitiveness=> mix of developed + developing counties that are resource rich=> limited cross-border flows between GTA + non-GTA countries

Question 30

Future for mineral resources

Answer 30

Technological=> Exploration=> strategies to find minerals are improving=> remote sensing, magnetometry, gravimetry + seismic surveys Extraction=> more efficient mining equipment, electronic technology (using robots- increasing safety + productivity.) Exploiting low grade despits=> phytomining + bioleaching Env=> Depleting resources=> may mean resource frontiers are exploited=> ocean flood deposits=> disrupt marine ecosystems + pollute oceans Conflict between TNC’S + govs pushing for economic devolvement + env groups concerned about impacts Economic=> If supply falls or demand increases= price will increase=> hinder countries development if can’t afford minerals they needs Recycling of minerals=> limited by cost but may become more common as reserves are depleted Political=> Conflict over ore minerals=> increase search more new reserves= political priority Gov’s + TNC’s=> forced to recognise rights of indigenous people in development of new mines

Question 31

Countries that produce lots of energy + countries that produce little energy

Answer 31

Countries that produce lots of energy=> abundance of natural resources + the money to exploit them (energy rich) - Iran, Saudi Arabia=> oil reserves - China, Australia=> coal reserves - UK, Russia + Canada=> oil + gas reserves - USA, Indonesia=> coal, oil + gas reserves - Canada, Australia, Niger=> nuclear=> producers of uranium Countries that produce little energy=> few resources + unable to exploit resources due to lack of money or political instability - Angola=> large oil reserves but politically unstable + lack money - Spain=> relatively wealthy but small fossil fuel reserves

Question 32

Consumption + trade of energy

Answer 32

Consumption=> strong relationship with GDP + energy consumption - Wealthy countries=> consume more energy per person (they can afford to) + most people have electricity + heating + use energy intensive devices (cars)=> USA - Poorer countries=> consume less energy per person (less able to afford it)=> lifestyles are less dependent on high energy consumption=> Ghana - Emerging economics are increasing consumption more rapidly than developed - Consumption in high-income countries has stabilized=> more energy conservation, energy efficient tech + fewer energy intensive industries Trade=> countries that produce a lot of energy export it to those who cant - Canada, Saudi Arabia, Norway + Australia= export large amounts of energy - Italy, Spain + Japan= import large amounts of energy - Oil is most traded fossil fuel=> mismatch between areas of production + consumption - Trade in coal + gas hindered by high transport costs + lack of infrastructure

Question 33

What's is the energy trilemma

Answer 33

``` Energy security (ability of energy producers to meet current + future demands), energy equity (accessibility + affordability of energy supply across the population) + env sustainability -Current levels of global production + demand= enough oil to last for 40 yrs, natural gas for 60 + coal for over 100 ```

Question 34

Geopolitics of energy=> OPEC

Answer 34

OPEC=> economic alliance of countries with a surplus of oil that export to developed countries who need it more. Major influence on the trade in oil=> responsible for 50% of crude oil exports - 12 member countries=> all developing + located in Middle east, Africa + south America - Operates as a cartel (association of suppliers with the purpose of maintaining prices at a high level and restricting competition) control supply to world market to influence price of oil - Cooperation between them=> attempt to withhold supplied to keep oil prices high - Restrict supply of oil to world market= huge price increases=> reduces depletion of oil reserves + also increases sustainability - Development of non-OPEC countries=> cartel has less control over world markets - Fall in prices (2014-2015)= increase in production in North America= fracking + fall in demand as economic growth in China slowed. But OPEC released more supplied=> undercut US unconventional oil production=> makes it less viable to produce

Question 35

What are energy mixes + X3 examples

Answer 35

Energy mix= composition of different primary energy sources from which households + industries get their energy Iceland= Geothermal (66%) Fossil fuels (19%) HEP (15%)=> primary energy - One of highest energy consumption per capita - One of the lowest carbon emitters=> only uses fossil fuels for transport - Geologically active= abundant geothermal energy - Mountainous country=> lots of water + potential energy for HEP France= Nuclear (38%) Oil, Coal, Natural gas, HEP=> primary energy - 80% of electricity= nuclear energy (due to OPEP oil crisis- now reliant on nuclear) - Shortage of fossil fuels (oil + gas) - Large river for cooling= suitable for nuclear energy Niger= - Highest biofuels - Lowest= coal + second lowest= primary/secondary oil

Question 36

Energy supply + physical geog

Answer 36

Climate -Wind=> wind energy can only be generated in locations with average wind speeds about 5.5 m/s. But very high winds damage wind turbines + stop working -HEP=> relies on large flows of water. Areas with low rainfall/frequent droughts= can’t produce reliable power -Solar=> most effective in places with minimal cloud cover + varies with time of the year Mines can be flooded + inaccessible / offshore oil rigs damaged by storms Geology -Coal=> forms when plant material undergoes geological processes of burial + heating=> coal undergone the most change= highest quality (anthracite) or changed less least= lowest quality (lignite) -Oil + natural gas=> organic rich rocks buried- heated + compressed= break down into oil + gas. Gas forms at higher temps + is usually deeper than oil. Travel upwards through pores in rock until an impermeable layer or rock= trapped -Oil + natural gas can form in shale (impermeable)= difficult to extract=> hydraulic fracking Geothermal=> places where the earths crust is thin + molten rock is close to surface Drainage - Drainage network of a country affects volume of energy that can be generated using HEP= dam is built across a river= turns turbines + produces electricity - HEP generation is most effective= large volumes of water consistently flowing down a river + large drop in elevation from reservoir to water outlet. Works best in drainage basins with large river + steep terrain

Question 37

Energy supply + globalisation=> TNC example

Answer 37

TNC’s= companies that operate in two or more countries BP= involved in all stage of oil + gas production=> exploration of potential reserves, refining crude oil to a usable product + selling it globally Involved in oil + gas exploration + production worldwide (USA, UK, Egypt + Russia)=> 2016 daily oil + gas production was over 3 million barrels of oil equivalent Crude oil is then transported to refineries + petrochemical pants=> refined 1.7 millions barrels of oil per day in 2016 Products then soil to industry + individuals across the world=> 18,000 outlets -Wealth + control of a valuable resources= TNC’s are powerful=> influence global economy, politics + env. TNC choose how much to charge for energy + if they want to vary for different consumers. If on drops its prices the other have to follow= price war

Question 38

Increase energy supply=>

Answer 38

Oil and gas exploration= -As fossil fuel reserves decrease their prices rise + it becomes economically viable to exploit less accessible reserves -Hydraulic fracking= extracting natural gas from shale= high pressure fluid pumped into rock causing rock to crack release gas -Oil can be extracted from tar sands (sediments that contains bitumen) mining sediment then separating oil As reserves run out=> pressure to explore reserves in remove/protected areas (Antarctica) Nuclear power= - Lots of power can be generated from a small amount of fuel + has low Co2 emissions - Research into how to improve nuclear power production=> limit climate change Renewable energy= - Increasing renewable sources decreases reliance on fossil fuels + increases energy security - More sustainable than fossil fuels + nuclear energy=> wont run out or cause LT env damage. But expensive to development + unreliable - Use of renewable resources is encourage by financial support schemes=> UK gov runs feed-in tariff scheme= energy supplies pay small scale renewable energy producers for electricity

Question 39

Demand management strategies=>

Answer 39

Household energy saving= - Improving thermal efficiency of walls, windows + roof - Passive solar windows= south facing + larger - Double glazing to reduce heat loss - Low carbon technologies= solar power - Manufacturing= Heat recovery systems - Lower energy consumption by reusing waste heat from production + use it to heat buildings or water- converted to electricity Transport= - Improving public transport (park+ride schemes) - Encourage people to walk + cycle (cycle lanes) - Aerodynamic car design - Ignition control Businesses/homes= combined heat + power systems Costumers generate own power locally using renewable/non renewable fuels=> captures waste heat from generation= used for space or water heating= reducing energy consumption + carbon emissions

Question 40

Energy sustainability issues

Answer 40

Acid rain=> burning F.F releases Sulphur dioxide + nitrogen oxide- react with precipitation in atmosphere to produce acid when it rains Kills fish stocks + damages ecosystems Damages buildings by accelerating weathering (esp limestone) Leaches toxic metals from soils=> accumulate in rivers/lakes - Catalytic converters on cars=> reduce Nox emissions from exhausts - Flue gas desulphurization=> remove Sulphur before/after coal is burnt - Liming=> adding lime to neutralize acidity in acidic lakes ``` Enhanced greenhouse effect=> rise in consumption of fossil fuels=> increased greenhouse gasses in atmosphere=> more heat in trapped + global temps are rising Melting of land ice -Rising sea levels= increased flooding -Changing ecosystems/biomes -Extreme weather effects ``` Nuclear waste management=> - Has a very long half life=> stays radioactive for thousands of years=> needs disposing of safely - Nuclear power stations=> produce high level radioactive waste=> spent fuel rods + fission products - Reprocessing= reusable uranium + plutonium are sperate out - Vitrified into solid blocks of glass=> stored in lead lined glass containers underground - Buried deep in geologically stable rock types - Expensive to buy land for this purpose - Requires safe transport links for transport of waste from power stations

Question 41

Future for energy resources

Answer 41

Technological=> - Hydrogen= energy dense fuel that can be used to replace fossil fuels. Produce + store surplus energy in fuel cells by electrolysis of water= pollution free - Gasification of coals=> coal converted to a gas undergrown where despits are too deep to take out as a solid - Secondary + tertiary oil extraction= bacterial to digest heavy oil= makes it flow easier - Off shore nuclear reactors= floating platforms so always fresh supply of cold sea water= cool reactor - Offshore wind Env=> - Carbon capture + sequestration= carbon emission eliminated= less env impact - Climate change affecting more places= target for emissions will decrease - Change global energy mix= force companies to use greener energy sources + more efficient tech Economic=> -Energy costs may rise= unconventional sources make up more or supply= people can’t afford it= affecting economic development Political=> - Influence of TNC’s in resource development will continue to grow=> wealth to control the tech of the future - Global commons=> countries bordering Artic + TNCs argue over rights to drill for oil in Artic (one of large conventional reserves)