Respiratory System Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
What are the two main divisions of the respiratory system?
A
Upper respiratory system and lower respiratory system
2
Q
What is the primary function of the respiratory mucosa?
A
To line the respiratory passageways and trap particles
3
Q
What changes occur to the respiratory mucosa throughout the respiratory tract?
A
It becomes progressively thinner from the nasal cavity to the alveoli
4
Q
What is cystic fibrosis?
A
A genetic disease causing thick, sticky mucus in the respiratory tract
5
Q
Describe the anatomy of the upper respiratory tract.
A
Includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx
6
Q
What are the components of the nasal cavity?
A
Superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae and meatus, nasal septum, vibrissae
7
Q
What is rhinorrhea?
A
Runny nose due to increased mucus production
8
Q
What are the paranasal sinuses?
A
Spaces within the skull including frontal, ethmoidal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses
9
Q
What is the function of the paranasal sinuses?
A
To warm and humidify inhaled air and provide voice resonance
10
Q
What are the three regions of the pharynx?
A
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
11
Q
What are the five functions of the larynx?
A
- Passage for air * Guard against food aspiration * Produce sound for speech * Assist in increasing abdominal pressure * Participate in sneeze and cough reflexes
12
Q
What is the role of the vocal folds?
A
To vibrate and produce sound for speech
13
Q
What is laryngitis?
A
Inflammation of the larynx affecting voice production
14
Q
What structures comprise the lower respiratory tract?
A
- Trachea * Bronchi * Bronchioles * Alveolar ducts * Alveoli
15
Q
What is a tracheotomy?
A
A surgical procedure to create an opening in the trachea
16
Q
Differentiate between main stem bronchi and segmental bronchi.
A
Main stem bronchi are primary; segmental bronchi are tertiary
17
Q
What is bronchodilation?
A
The widening of bronchi and bronchioles
18
Q
What is bronchoconstriction?
A
The narrowing of bronchi and bronchioles
19
Q
What is bronchitis?
A
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes
20
Q
What is asthma?
A
A condition characterized by constricted airways
21
Q
What is the respiratory zone?
A
Structures participating in gas exchange, including respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
22
Q
Describe the respiratory membrane.
A
Thin barrier between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
23
Q
What are type I alveolar cells?
A
Cells that make up the majority of the alveolar surface
24
Q
What is the importance of surfactant?
A
Reduces surface tension in alveoli to prevent collapse
25
What is the anatomical structure of the pleura?
Includes visceral and parietal pleura and pleural fluid
26
Define surface tension in the context of the lungs.
The force that can lead to lung collapse if not countered by surfactant
27
What is pleurisy?
Inflammation of the pleura
28
What is pleural effusion?
Excess fluid in the pleural cavity
29
Define respiration.
The process of gas exchange in the body
30
What are the four processes of human respiration?
* Pulmonary ventilation * Pulmonary gas exchange * Gas transport * Tissue gas exchange
31
What is pulmonary ventilation?
The process of moving air in and out of the lungs
32
What is Boyle's law?
The inverse relationship between volume and pressure of gases
33
What is the role of chemoreceptors in breathing?
To sense changes in O2, CO2, and H+ concentrations
34
What is apnea?
Temporary cessation of breathing
35
Define hypoxic drive for breathing.
Breathing stimulus due to low oxygen levels
36
What is the Herring-Breuer reflex?
A reflex that prevents over-inflation of the lungs
37
What factors influence airflow into and out of the lungs?
* Resistance * Compliance * Pressure gradients
38
Define partial pressure of a gas.
The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture
39
What is Dalton’s law of partial pressures?
Total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases
40
What is Henry’s law of gas solubility?
Gas solubility is proportional to its partial pressure
41
What is external respiration?
Gas exchange between the lungs and blood
42
What is internal respiration?
Gas exchange between blood and tissues
43
What is the Bohr effect?
The effect of pH and CO2 concentration on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen
44
What is altitude sickness?
Illness caused by low oxygen levels at high altitudes
45
How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?
* As bicarbonate (70%) * Attached to hemoglobin (23%) * Dissolved in plasma (7%)
46
What enzyme is used to convert carbon dioxide to bicarbonate?
Carbonic anhydrase
47
What is hyperventilation?
Increased rate and/or depth of respiration
48
What is hypoventilation?
Decreased rate and/or depth of respiration
49
What is hypocapnia?
Low carbon dioxide levels in the blood
50
What is hypercapnia?
High carbon dioxide levels in the blood
51
What is respiratory alkalosis?
A condition caused by decreased carbon dioxide due to hyperventilation
52
What is respiratory acidosis?
A condition caused by increased carbon dioxide due to hypoventilation
53
What are the paired paranasal sinuses?
Frontal, ethmoidal, maxillary, sphenoidal
54
What connects all sinuses to the nasal cavity?
Ducts
55
What type of epithelium lines the ducts and sinuses?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
56
What are the functions of the paranasal sinuses?
* Warm and humidify inhaled air
* Provide resonance to the voice
57
What is the term for inflammation of the sinuses?
Sinusitis
58
What can cause sinus headaches?
Increased pressure in the paranasal sinuses
59
What anatomical structure is located posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx?
Pharynx
60
What is the superior most region of the pharynx called?
Nasopharynx
61
What blocks material from the oral cavity and oropharynx from entering the nasopharynx?
Soft palate
62
What are the paired openings in the lateral walls of the nasopharynx called?
Auditory tubules
63
What is another name for the pharyngeal tonsil when it is enlarged?
Adenoids
64
What is the middle pharyngeal region called?
Oropharynx
65
Where are the palatine tonsils located?
Lateral walls of the oropharynx
66
What type of epithelium lines the oropharynx?
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
67
What is the inferior region of the pharynx called?
Laryngopharynx
68
What does the laryngopharynx serve as a passageway for?
* Food
* Air
69
What is the larynx commonly referred to as?
Voice box
70
What are the main functions of the larynx?
* Produces sound
* Serves as a passageway for air
* Prevents ingested materials from entering the respiratory tract
* Assists in increasing abdominal pressure
* Participates in sneeze and cough reflex
71
What are the nine cartilages that hold the larynx in place?
* Thyroid
* Cricoid
* Epiglottis
* Arytenoid (paired)
* Corniculate (paired)
* Cuneiform (paired)
72
What is the laryngeal prominence commonly known as?
Adam’s apple
73
What is the function of the epiglottis?
Covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing
74
What are the vocal folds also known as?
True vocal cords
75
What is the rima glottidis?
The openings between the vocal folds
76
What are the vestibular folds also known as?
False vocal cords
77
What is sound production (phonation) dependent on?
* Length and thickness of the vocal folds
* Amount of tension on the vocal folds
* Force of air passing across the vocal cords
78
What is laryngitis?
Inflammation of the larynx
79
What can cause laryngitis?
* Viral infection
* Bacterial infection
* Overuse of the voice
80
What is the trachea commonly referred to as?
Windpipe
81
What supports the anterior and lateral walls of the trachea?
C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
82
What is the carina?
The bifurcation of the main bronchi
83
What is bronchitis?
Inflammation of the bronchi
84
What can cause bronchitis?
* Viral infection
* Bacterial infection
* Inhalation of irritants
* Cigarette smoke
85
What is asthma characterized by?
Episodes of bronchoconstriction with wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and excess pulmonary mucus
86
What are the microscopic structures of the respiratory zone?
* Respiratory bronchioles
* Alveolar ducts
* Alveoli
87
What type of epithelium is found in alveoli?
Simple squamous epithelium
88
What facilitates gas diffusion in the respiratory zone?
Simple squamous epithelium in alveolar ducts and alveoli
89
How many alveoli does each lung contain by the age of 8?
Approximately 300–400 million
90
What are alveolar pores?
Openings between adjacent alveoli that provide collateral ventilation
91
What do pulmonary capillaries form around each alveolus?
A vascular network
92
What contributes to the lungs' ability to stretch and recoil?
Elastic fibers in the interalveolar septum
93
What are the two cell types that form the alveolar wall?
* Simple squamous alveolar type I cells
* Alveolar type II cells
94
What is the approximate number of alveoli a person has by age 8?
A person has approximately one million alveoli by the time they are 8 years old.
95
What are alveolar pores?
Openings between adjacent alveoli that provide for collateral ventilation.
96
What forms a vascular network around each alveolus?
Pulmonary capillaries.
97
What is the interalveolar septum?
The wall between adjacent alveoli that often contains elastic fibers.
98
What are the two cell types that form the alveolar wall?
* Alveolar type I cells (squamous alveolar cells)
* Alveolar type II cells (septal cells)
99
What percentage of alveolar surface area is made up by alveolar type I cells?
About 95%.
100
What is the function of alveolar type II cells?
They secrete pulmonary surfactant, which opposes surface tension.
101
What does pulmonary surfactant prevent?
The collapse of alveoli.
102
When do type II cells begin to produce surfactant?
About 2 months prior to birth.
103
What is the role of alveolar macrophages?
They engulf microorganisms or particulate material that reaches the alveoli.
104
What is the respiratory membrane?
The thin barrier that oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse across during gas exchange.
105
What components make up the respiratory membrane?
* Alveolar epithelium and its basement membrane
* Capillary endothelium and its basement membrane
106
What causes pneumonia?
Infection of the lung, often due to bacterial or viral infection.
107
What are common symptoms of pneumonia?
* Cough
* Fever
* Difficulty breathing
* Weakness
* Chills
* Increased heart rate
* Chest pain while inhaling
108
What is the difference between the right and left lungs?
The right lung is larger and has three lobes, while the left lung has two lobes.
109
What is the hilum of the lung?
The indented region on the mediastinal surface through which bronchi and vessels pass.
110
What are the effects of smoking on the lungs?
* Increases risk of respiratory infections
* Causes changes that may lead to emphysema or lung cancer
* Blackens respiratory passageways
111
What is the function of bronchial circulation?
Transports oxygenated blood to the tissues of the lungs.
112
What is pleurisy?
Inflammation of the pleural membranes that increases friction between layers.
113
What is pleural effusion?
Excess fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity.
114
What causes pneumothorax?
Free air getting into the pleural cavity, potentially causing lung collapse.
115
What is pulmonary ventilation?
The movement of respiratory gases between the atmosphere and the alveoli.
116
What are the four processes of respiration?
* Pulmonary ventilation
* Pulmonary gas exchange
* Gas transport
* Tissue gas exchange
117
What muscles are primarily involved in quiet breathing?
* Diaphragm
* External intercostals
118
What is Boyle's Law?
At a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container increases.
119
What role do the accessory muscles of breathing play?
They assist in forced inspiration and expiration.
120
Fill in the blank: The _______ pleura adheres to the lung surface.
Visceral
121
True or False: The left lung has a middle lobe.
False
122
What is the function of the serous fluid in the pleural cavity?
Acts as a lubricant to reduce friction during breathing.
123
What causes vertical dimension changes in the thoracic cavity?
Movement of the diaphragm.
124
How do lateral dimension changes occur in the thoracic cavity?
Elevation and depression of the rib cage.
125
What results in anterior–posterior dimension changes in the thoracic cavity?
Anterior and posterior movement of the sternum.
126
What does Boyle's Law state?
At a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container increases.
127
What is the formula representing Boyle's Law?
P1V1 = P2V2.
128
What is an air pressure gradient?
Occurs when the force per unit area is greater in one place than in another.
129
What is atmospheric pressure?
The pressure that gases in the air exert in the environment.
130
What is the accepted atmospheric pressure at sea level?
760 mmHg.
131
What is the collective volume of the alveoli within the lungs called?
Alveolar volume.
132
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
The pressure associated with the alveolar volume.
133
What happens to intrapulmonary pressure at the end of both inspiration and expiration?
It equals 760 mmHg.
134
What is intrapleural pressure?
The pressure within the pleural cavity, generally about 4 mmHg lower than intrapulmonary pressure.
135
What occurs during inspiration according to Boyle's Law?
Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases, air moves into the lungs.
136
What occurs during expiration according to Boyle's Law?
Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure increases, air moves out of the lungs.
137
What initiates quiet inspiration?
Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals.
138
What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during quiet inspiration?
It decreases below atmospheric pressure (to 759 mmHg).
139
What occurs during quiet expiration?
Diaphragm and external intercostals relax, thoracic cavity volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases above atmospheric pressure (to 761 mmHg).
140
What is the role of the elastic recoil of the lungs during quiet expiration?
It allows air to flow out of the lungs.
141
What characterizes forced breathing?
Requires contraction of accessory muscles for greater thoracic cavity volume changes.
142
What coordinates the skeletal muscles of breathing?
Nuclei within the brainstem.
143
What are the primary sensory receptors involved in altering breathing?
Chemoreceptors.
144
Where are central chemoreceptors located?
Within the medulla oblongata.
145
What do peripheral chemoreceptors monitor?
Both H+ and O2 concentrations in arterial blood.
146
What is the main stimulus affecting breathing rate and depth?
CO2 levels.
147
What initiates the inhalation reflex?
Stretch stimulation of baroreceptors.
148
What is apnea?
The absence of breathing.
149
What is eupnea?
A breathing rhythm of 12–15 times per minute.
150
What is the function of the pontine respiratory center?
Facilitates a smooth transition between inspiration and expiration.
151
What is hypoxic drive?
When decreased partial pressure of oxygen becomes the main stimulus for breathing.
152
What does airflow depend on?
The pressure gradient and resistance.
153
What is the relationship between airflow, pressure gradient, and resistance?
Airflow is directly related to pressure gradient and inversely related to resistance.
154
What factors can alter resistance in the respiratory system?
Decreased elasticity, bronchiole diameter changes, and compliance changes.
155
What causes bronchoconstriction?
Parasympathetic stimulation, histamine release, or exposure to cold.
156
What is Henry's Law?
Solubility of a gas in a liquid is dependent on the partial pressure of the gas in the air.
157
What happens during decompression sickness?
Nitrogen gas bubbles form in the blood when a diver rises too quickly.
158
What is the primary difference in partial pressures of gases in alveoli and systemic tissues?
Oxygen is higher in alveoli; carbon dioxide is higher in systemic tissues.
159
What is pulmonary gas exchange?
The process where oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
160
What drives the diffusion of oxygen during pulmonary gas exchange?
The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is lower than in the alveoli.
161
What drives the diffusion of carbon dioxide during pulmonary gas exchange?
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is higher than in the alveoli.
162
What factors affect the efficiency of O2 and CO2 diffusion during pulmonary gas exchange?
* Large surface area
* Minimal thickness of the respiratory membrane.
163
What is ventilation–perfusion coupling?
The ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow simultaneously.
164
How does bronchodilation affect ventilation?
Bronchodilation increases airflow when the partial pressure of CO2 increases.
165
How does pulmonary arteriole dilation affect perfusion?
Arterioles dilate in response to an increase in oxygen or a decrease in carbon dioxide.
166
What is emphysema?
An irreversible loss of pulmonary gas exchange surface area due to inflammation and destruction of pulmonary elastic connective tissue.
167
What leads to the buildup of deoxygenated air in the lungs in emphysema?
Dilation and fusing together of alveoli, decreasing surface area.
168
What is the primary cause of most cases of emphysema?
Smoking.
169
What are some conditions that decrease the surface area of the lungs?
* Emphysema
* Lung cancer
* Tuberculosis
* Surgical removal of a lung.
170
What happens during tissue gas exchange?
Gases move between the blood and systemic cells.
171
What is the driving force of tissue gas exchange?
The partial pressure gradient for O2 and CO2.
172
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
* 98% bound to hemoglobin
* 2% dissolved in plasma.
173
What is oxyhemoglobin?
Oxygen bound to hemoglobin.
174
What is deoxyhemoglobin?
Hemoglobin without oxygen.
175
What is the function of a pulse oximeter?
To measure blood oxygen levels noninvasively.
176
What percentage of hemoglobin saturation is considered normal?
Greater than 95%.
177
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
* 7% dissolved in plasma
* 23% attached to hemoglobin
* 70% as bicarbonate.
178
What occurs during the chloride shift?
Bicarbonate ions diffuse out of erythrocytes into plasma, and chloride ions move into erythrocytes.
179
What is the Bohr effect?
The interaction between carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and oxygen that decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
180
What factors can shift the oxygen–hemoglobin saturation curve to the right?
* Increased temperature
* Increased H+
* Increased 2,3-BPG.
181
What is hyperventilation?
Breathing rate or depth increased above the body's demand.
182
What is hypocapnia?
When blood CO2 levels decrease below normal.
183
What is hypoventilation?
Breathing that is either too slow or too shallow.
184
What are the symptoms of hyperventilation?
* Dizziness
* Numbness
* Tingling
* Muscular cramps.
185
What is hypoxia?
A decrease of oxygen due to lower amounts diffusing from the alveoli into the blood.
186
What is hypercapnia?
An increase in blood CO2.
187
What is bradypnea?
Breathing that is too slow.
188
What is hyperpnea?
Breathing that is deep but not fast.
