Retrieval

Question 1

Retrieval cue

Answer 1

Contains information that fits some aspects of the memory trace.

Question 2

Permanent forgetting

Answer 2

Unavailability because of the decay of the memory trace

Question 3

Temporary forgetting

Answer 3

Inaccessibility because of the lack of retrieval cues

Question 4

Involuntary memory

Answer 4

Cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort (Proustian Memory)

• PTSD

Question 5

Encoding-specificity principle

Answer 5

Retrieval is enhanced when the cues available (during retrieval)
match the features present/stored during encoding

Question 6

Context-dependent retrieval

Question 7

Tip-of-the-tongue effect

Answer 7

failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with a partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent

Question 8

Available VS accessible memories

Answer 8

Available info = info stored in memory

Accessible info = info that can be retrieved

Question 9

Memory trace

Answer 9

Contains information that was attended during encoding (mental representation)

Question 10

Retrieval

Answer 10

Interaction between the retrieval cues and the encoded memory trace (cue-dependency)

Question 11

Experiment: More cues?

Answer 11

Given a list of 84 words, some people were asked to create 1 cue per word while the other group were supposed to generate 3 cues. They didn’t know they were going to be tested in retrieval.

Result: More cues = easier to retrieve the memory

Question 12

Experiment: Encoding-specificity principle

Answer 12

• In an experiment done by Thomson and Tulving participants were giving weak cues with the target words, and then asked to retrieve the target words by being given the weak cues. Retrieval went well.
  
  • Retrieval was not as good without cues
  • When they were giving strong cues that were not there during encoding, performance dropped.
• This shows that although you´re giving a strong cue, the performance will be better with a weak encoding-specific cue.

Question 13

Context-dependent retrieval

Answer 13

Retrieval is context based.

Individuals who studied under water, and were tested under water had better performance than those who were learning on land.

The physical locations acts as a cue itself.

Question 14

State-/mood-dependent retrieval

Answer 14

Experiment: learning and studying in same mode improves performance (experiment done with music, pleasant vs unpleasant music)

• When you´re more depressed you´ll have more sad episodic memories.

Question 15

Is frequent exposure sufficient?

Answer 15

Even though one has seen the coin many times, one struggles to remember what´s on the back/draw it from memory.

Question 16

Improving memory

Answer 16

At encoding: encoding more features (implementing more “facets” via which “cues” can access the memory trace).

At retrieval: providing more cues to facilitate retrieval (utilize context information)

Question 17

Level of processing theory

Answer 17

The more deeply we process information during encoding the better we will remember it.

Example:

Given a list of words, and the instruction to process the word in three ways

1) Structural: is the word written in capital letters?

2) Acoustic: does the word rhyme with x

3) Semantic: does the word fit in the sentence …

Remembered better

Question 18

Level of processing theory

Answer 18

The more deeply we process information during encoding the better we will remember it.

Example:

Given a list of words, and the instruction to process the word in three ways

1) Structural: is the word written in capital letters?

2) Acoustic: does the word rhyme with x

3) Semantic: does the word fit in the sentence …

Remembered better

Question 19

Semantic processing

Answer 19

Semantic processing results in a more elaborative encoding so that the
new memory trace becomes embedded in a rich network of other
traces making it more accessible for various retrieval cues.

When you have prior knowledge about a topic, it´s easier to learn more.

Question 20

Dual-coding effect

Answer 20

• Encoding information both verbally and visually improves memory.

Question 21

Spacing effect

Answer 21

• Rehearsing spread out over time is better than rehearsing the same amount of time in a single session.

This is producing encoding variability, with different circumstances you get different cues and more changes in the environment. It´s easier to access because more retrieval cues.

Question 22

Testing effect

Answer 22

• Learning is more effective if it involves testing (=retrieval) of the and not only encoding.

It´s better to be tested than to only read the answers.

Question 23

Method of loci

Answer 23

A familiar route is imagined and images of the items to be recalled are linked to landmarks on the route

Question 24

Categorization

Answer 24

Items grouped together into categories will be better recalled

Question 25

Interacting images

Answer 25

Vivid and bizarre images are formed of the items to be recalled interacting in some way

Question 26

Pegword method

Answer 26

To be recalled items are linked by imagery to an already learned sequence list of imaginable words

Question 27

Principles of mnemonics

Answer 27

1. Meaningful encoding, relating the items to previous knowledge
2. Structured retrieval, adding potential cues to the items to aid retrieval e.g. by mental imagery
3. Practice (to make encoding automatic and very rapid)

Question 28

Why do we forget?

Answer 28

• Retrieval failure: lack of cues
• Encoding failure: we never knew it
• Decay of memory trace: over time the memory trace decays

Question 29

Sleep

Answer 29

Sleep protects memory from interference.

Question 30

Retroactive interference

Answer 30

Later learning impairs memory for earlier learning. Interference occurs when a filler task is more similar to the original associations.

Question 31

Proactive interference

Answer 31

Previous learning impairs later learning. Proactive interference: previous learning impairs later learning. Harder to learn French after learning Spanish because the words are so similar.

Question 32

Eyewitness experiment (RIF)

Answer 32

• The participants were asked to retrieve information about a crime shown to them with a slide show.
• Retrieval of certain information inhibited the retrieval of other related items.
• There´s a risk that officers questioning witnesses can lead to retrieval-induced forgetting.
• Retrieval-induced forgetting can also cause witnesses to fall victim to the misinformation effect
  .
• Both RIF and misinformation effect disappear after 24 hours, so a good idea can be to space out interrogations/questioning of the same person.

RIF is non-existent or reduced in people with depression, this might explain why selective recall might be worse when you have exam nerves.