Review Flashcards
(322 cards)
1
Q
Visual Cues
A
Perceptually organize by taking into account
1. Depth
2. Form
3. Motion
4. Constancy
2
Q
Retinal disparity
A
Eyes are apart giving humans slightly different views of objects (depth)
3
Q
Convergence
A
Depth and how eyeballs are turned
Far away: eye muscles relaxed
Close: eye muscles contract
4
Q
Binocular cues
A
How humans recieve cues due to having two eyes
5
Q
Monocular cues
A
Cues humans recieve without needing two eyes
6
Q
Relative size
A
- Can infer with an eye
- Closer an object is, the bigger it is
- Gives idea of form
7
Q
Interposition
A
Perception that one object is in front of another is closer
8
Q
Relative height
A
Things that are higher appear further then thing that are closer (think mountains)
9
Q
Shading & Contour
A
Using light and shadows to percieve depth/contours
(craters)
10
Q
Motion parallax
A
Things farther away move slower
Closer moves faster
11
Q
Constancy
A
Perception of object doesn’t change even if image cast on retina is different
12
Q
Size Constancy
A
Perception of somethings size remains constant despite changing distance
13
Q
Shape Constancy
A
Perception that a changing shape still maintains the same shape
(ex: a door closed is rectangle and still appears rectangle when being opened)
14
Q
Color Constancy
A
Despite lighting change (which change color on retina) we understand color is same
15
Q
Sensory Adaptation
A
Senses are adaptable and can can their sensitivity to stimuli
16
Q
Hearing Adaptation
A
Inner Ear Muscle
Higher noise: muscle contracts (protects ear drum)
17
Q
Proprioception
A
Sense of position/balance of the body in space
18
Q
Down regulation
A
Light adaptation
When bright, pupils constrict
Desensitization of rods and cones
19
Q
Up Regulation
A
Dark adaptation
When dark, pupils dilate
Rods and cones synthesize
20
Q
Difference Threshold & Weber’s Law
A
Just Notable Difference (JND): Threshold when you notice a change in sensation
∆JND / I (Initial Intensity) = k (constant)
Linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity
21
Q
Absolute threshold of Sensation
A
Minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect it 50% of the time
22
Q
Subliminal Stimuli
A
Stimuli below absolute threshold of sensation
23
Q
Intensity
A
How quickly neurons fire to notice
Slow: low intensity
Fast: high intensity
24
Q
Non-adapting
A
Neuron constitency fires at a constant rate
25
Slow-adapting
Neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and slowly reduces after some time
26
Fast-adapting
Neuron fires when stimulis starts then stops firing
27
Somatosensation
28
Vestibular System
Balance and spatial orientation
* Comes from inner ears (semicircular canals) and limbs
29
Endolymph
Fluid in canals
* When we rotate fluid moves in semicircular canals
* Help detect what direction head is moving in
* How fast fluid moves helps determine strength of rotation
30
Otolithic Organs
Utricle and Saccule
* Help detect linear acceleration and head positioning
* Work well due to gravity and buoyancy
* Contribute to dizziness and vertigo
31
Signal Detection Theory
How we make decisions under uncertainty
At what point we can detect a signal
32
Signal Detection Options
Hit > miss (when strong signal)
Miss > hit (weak signal)
33
Conservative Strategy
Always say no unless 100% certain (might get some misses)
34
Liberal Strategy
Always says yes even if get false alarms
35
Bottom up Processing
Stimulis influences our perception
* No preconcieved notions
* Data driven
* Inductive reasoning
36
Top down Processing
Background knowledge influences perception
* Theory driven
* Perception influenced by expectation
* Deductive reasoning
37
Similarity
Items similar to one another are grouped together by brain
38
Pragnanz
Reality organized reduced to simplest form possible
Ex: Olympic rings seen as 5 rings and not complex shape
39
Proximity
Objects that are closer together are grouped together compared to objects that are farther
40
Continuity
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
41
Closure
Objects grouped together are seen as whole and mind fills in missing information
42
Symmetry
Mind percieves objects as symmetrical and forming around center point
43
Law of common fate
Elements moving together are percieved as a group
44
Law of Past Experiences
In some cases visual stimulis are categorized according to past experiences
45
Contextual Effects
Influence of environmental factors (context) on perception
46
Conjunctiva
Thin layer of cells that line inside of eyelids from eye
47
Cornea
Transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue
* Starts to bend light
* First part of eye light hits
48
Anterior chamber
Space filled with aqueous humour that provides pressure to keep shape of eyeball
49
Pupil
Opening in middle of iris that determines amount of light allowed in to eye
* Size can change based on iris relaxing/contracting
50
Iris
Gives eye its color
Muscle that controls the size of the pupil
51
Lens
Bends light so it goes to the back of the eyeball
* Focuses on fovea of retina
* Changes shape using suspensory ligaments
52
Ciliary Body
Made up of suspensory ligament and ciliary muscle
* Secretes acqueous humor
53
Posterior Chamber
Area behind iris to back of lens
* Filled with acqueous humor
54
Vitreous Chamber
Vitreous humor (gelly like substance) provides pressure and nutrients for the eyeball
55
Retina
Back area of eye (filled with photoreceptors) where light is converted from physical waveform to electrochemical impulse that brain can interpret
56
Macula
Part of retina rich in primarily cones with some rods
57
Fovea
Part of macula with only cones
58
Cones
Detect color (mainly red, than green, least blue) and detail (some light)
* Contain photopsin (if light hits will trigger phototransduction cascade)
* Concentrated in fovea
* Fast recovery time (Doesn't take long to adjust to changes in color)
59
Rods
* Detect light
* Night vision
* A lot more sensitive to light than cones
* Found mainly in periphery (less direct light)
* Contain rhodopsin (if light hits will trigger phototransduction cascade)
* Slow recovery time (takes a while to adjust to dark)
60
Choroid
Network of blood vessels that help nourish retina
* Black in humans
* Animals with night vision have non-black choroids
61
Sclera
Thick fibrous tissues that covers the posterior of the eye (whites)
* Attachment point for muscles
* Extra layer of protection and structure
* Lined with conjunctiva
62
Transmission
Electrical activation of one neuron by another
63
Perception
Conscious sensory experience of neutral processing
64
Processing
Neutral transformation of multiple neural signals into perception
65
Transduction
Occurs when energy is transformed from one form to another
(ex: light to electrical in eyes)
66
Sensation
Physical stimulus converted in to neural impulse
67
Photo Transduction Cascade
Light hits rods > rods turn off > bipolar cells turn on > retinal ganglion cells turn on > optic nerve > brain
68
Trichromatic Theory of Color
You have cones that are receptive to 3 colors (red, green, and blue) that combine to form colors we see
69
Opponent Process Theory of Color
You have cones that are receptive to 4 colors (red, green, blue, and YELLOW)
Red and green cones oppose each other as do black and white
Only one color can dominate at a time
70
Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Light
71
Phototransduction Cascade (PTC)
Dark
72
Photopic Vision
Vision at high light levels
73
Mesopic Vision
Vision at dawn/dusk involving rods and cones
74
Scotopic Vision
Vision at very low levels of light
75
Photoreceptor
Specialized nerve that can take light and convert to neural impulse
76
Blind Spot
Where optic nerve connects to retina
* No rods/conesf
77
Visual Field Processing
Ray of light from **left** visual field hits **nasal ** side of **left** eye and **temporal** side of **right** eye
Ray of light from **right** visual field hits **nasal** side of **right** eye and **temporal** side of **left** eye
78
Optic chiasm
Where each electric signal to the brain from each eye converges
* Axons leading from temporal side DON'T cross here
79
Feature detection
When looking at an object you need to break it down into component features to make sense of it
1. Color
* Cones
* Trichromatic Theory
* Something reflects red > red light hits red cone > fire axon potential > brain sees red
2. Form
* Cones
* **Parvocellular Pathway:** Good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shapes) and color, bad at temporal (motion)
3. Motion
* Rods
* **Magnocellular Pathway:** High temporal resolution (time and movement), bad spatial resolution (no color)
80
Parallel Processing
Detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time
81
Audition
Sense of sound
Need...
1. Pressurized sound wave (stimuli)
2. Hair cell (receptor, found in cochlea)
82
Wavelength
How close peaks (of a soundwave) are
Smaller wavelength = greater frequency
Higher wavelength = smaller frequency (travel farther, penetrate deeper in to ear)
83
External/Outer Ear
1. Pinna
2. Auditory Canal/External Auditory Meatus
3. Tympanic Membrane/Eardrum
84
Middle Ear
Three osicles (bones)
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Stapes (stirrup)
* Moves back and forth at same frequency as stimulis
* Pushes elliptical window back and forth
Three smallest bones in the body
85
Inner Ear
1. Cochlea
* Round structure lined with hair cells
2. Semicircular canals
86
Cochlea
Fluid inside cochlea is pushed around and comes back around (cochlea is spiraled)
**Organ of Corti** divides cochlea in two
87
Organ of Corti
1. Upper Membrane
* Cilia are called the **hair bundle** and made of little filaments (one filament is a kinocilium)
2. Lower Membrane
and little hair cells
As fluid moves in cochlea, causes hair cells to move back and forth
Hair moves activates spiral ganglion cell which activates auditory nerve
88
Basilar Tuning
Varying hair cells in cochlea that allow the brain to distinguish
89
Primary Auditory Cortex
Part of temporal lobe
**Time Ticking - Temporal Lobe**
* Recieves all information from cochlea
90
Cochlear Implants
Surgery that tries to restore some hearing to people with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (nerve deafness)
91
Sensory Adaptation
Change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus
* Down regulation of a sensory receptor
92
Amplification
Opposite of sensory adaptation
* Up regulation
93
Somatosensory Homunculus
Map of your body in your brain
* Information all comes to the sensory strip
* In sensory cortex (cortex/parietal lobe)
94
Proprioception
Sense of balance/position
* Sensors (tiny little sensors) located in muscles send signals that go up spinal choard and brain
* Can tell how contracted/relaxed
* More cognitive
95
Kinaesthesia
Movement of the body
* More behavioral
96
Nociception
Ability to sense pain
* SLOW
97
Thermoception
Ability to sense temperature
* SLOW
* Use TrypV1 receptor
* Conformational change: change in physical structure in pain
98
3 Types of Nerve Fibers
1. A-beta fibres:
* Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin
* Less resistance, high conductance
2. A-delta fibres:
* Smaller diameter, less myelin
3. C fibres:
* Small diamter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)
Fastest to slowest **alphabetical** A-B, A-D, C
99
Gate Control Theory of Olfaction
Theory of the process of nociception
* Non painful input closes the gates to painful input, which prevents pain from traveling to the central nervous system
**Stimulis by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain**
100
Pheromone
Chemical signal released by 1 member of species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response
* Important in animals (insects)
* Mating, fighting, communication
101
Amygdala
* Emotion, agression, mating
* In temporal lobe
* Memory, decision making, emotional reactions
102
Vomeronasal System
103
Ipsilateral
Occuring on same side of body
* Smell (olfactoin) and taste (gustation)
* Doesn't synapse on to thalamus
104
Contralateral Control
Left brain controls right body and right brain controls left body
* Affecting/crossing over opposite side of brain
* Vision, hearing, touch
105
Labeled-line Theory of Olfaction
Each receptor would respond to specific stumuli and is directly linked to brain
106
Vibrational Theory of Olfaction
Vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor
107
Steric/Shape Theory of Olfaction
Odor fits in to receptors similar to lock-and-key
108
Anosmia
Inability to smell
**aNOSEmia**
109
Olfaction Pathway
Olfactory bulb > amygdala > piriform cortex > orbitofrontal cortex
110
5 Tastes
1. Bitter
2. Salty
3. Sweet
4. Sour
5. Umami (ability to taste glutamate)
Sweet, Umami, and Bitter cells rely on **GPCR receptors**
Sour and salty rely on **ion channels** (think salt SOdium SOur salty)
111
Tastebuds
* Concentrated anteriorly (front of tongue)
* Can be:
1. Fungiform (anterior) papillae: Mushroom-shaped structures located on tip and sides of tongue
2. Foliate (side) papillae: Folded structures at back of tongue on both sides
3. Circumvallate (back) papillae: Flat mound structures found at back of tongue
Filiform papillae: don't contain taste buds and exist all over tongue
Only filiform papillae at center of tongue
112
Tastant
Substance that stimulates sense of taste
113
Gustducin
Protein associated with sensation of taste
114
Labelled Lines Model
* Each taste bud receptor has 5 axons all that send seperate taste information to different parts of gustatory cortex
* Seperate to brain
* All synpase on different parts of gustatory cortex
115
Consciousness
* Awareness of our self and environment
* Different levels of awareness
* Natural or induced by other factors (drugs, mental efforts)
* Alertness > Sleep
116
Alertness
* Aware/awake of who you are, what's going on in environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, code information to your memory
117
Daydreaming
Feel relaxed, not as focused on being alert, light meditatoin (self-induced)
118
Drowsiness
Just before falling asleep/after waking up
* Self induced through deep meditation
119
Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
* Measures brainwaves
* Each wave oscillates at different frequencies and associated with different states of consciousness
120
Beta
* 12 - 30 Hz
* Associated with awake/concentration
* If alert for too long beta levels get high and experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness
* Constant awakened alterness
121
Alpha
* 8 - 13 Hz
* Daydreaming state
* Disappear in drowsiness but reappear in deep sleep
122
Theta
* 4 - 7 Hz
* Drowsiness
* Right after you fall asleep
* When sleeping lightly
123
Delta
* 0.5 - 3 Hz
* Deep sleep
* Coma
124
Sleep Stages
4 main stages that occur in 90 minute cycles
125
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) Sleep
N1
N2
N3
126
N1
* Theta waves
* Hypnagonic Hallucinations: hearing/seeing things that aren't there
* Tetris effect: seeing images of what you have last seen in your sleep, feeling like you're on water even if land after being on boat all day
* Hypnic jerks: feeling of falling/muscle twitches experienced as falling asleep
127
N2
* Deeper sleep
* Harder to awaken
* Theta waves, sleep spindles, K-complexes
* **Sleep spindles:** burst of rapid brain activity, help maintain tranquil sleep, ability to sleep through loud noises
* **K-complexes:** supress cortical arousal, keep asleep, help sleep-based memory consolidation, make occur by gently touching someone who's asleep
128
N3
* Slow wave sleep
* Very difficult to awaken
* Delta waves
* Sleep walking/talking
* Declarative memory consolidation
129
N3
* Slow wave sleep
* Very difficult to awaken
* Delta waves
* Sleep walking/talking
* Declarative memory consolidation
130
Rapid-eye movement (REM) stage
* Eyes move rapidly beneath eyelids but other muscles are paralyzed
* Most dreams occur
* Memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories
* Alpha, beta, dyssynchronous waves
* Waking up during allows you to remember dreams
* **BATS-drink blood** beta, alpha, theta, sleep spindle/k-complex, delta, beta
131
Circadian Rhythms
Regular body rhythms across 24 hour period
* Controlled by melatonin (produced in pineal gland)
* Controls body temp/sleep cycle
* Changes as you age
132
Dreaming
* During REM sleep (remembering)
* Brainwaves look like awake
* Activity in prefrontal cortex during REM is decreased (logic part of brain)
133
Sigmund Freud Dream Theory
Dreams are unconcious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted
**Manifest content:** what actually happened, literal meaning
**Latent content:** hidden meaning
* Little science proof
134
Evolutionary Biology Dream Theory
Threat simulation to prepare for real world
* Problem Solving
* No purpose
135
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
Brain gets lots of neural impulses to brain stem, that are sometimes interpreted by frontal cortex
brain finding meaning from random activity
136
Insomnia
Persistent trouble falling asleep/staying asleep
137
Narcolepsy
Can't help from falling asleep
138
Sleep Apnea
Stop breathing while sleeping
139
Sleep Walking/Talking
* Mostly genetic and harmless
* Occurs mainly in children
140
Hypnotism
Someone becomes succeptible to suggestion if they wanted to in relaxed state
* Could be used to retrieve memories but could create false memories
**Dissociation Theory:** Extreme form of divided consciousness
**Social Influence Theory:** People do/report what's expected of them, like actors
141
Meditation
Training people to self regulate attention and awareness
Light meditation: more alpha waves
Deep meditation: more theta waves
142
Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs that alter consciousness/perception
4 Categories:
1. Depressants
2. Stimulants
3. Hallucinogens
4. Opiates/Opioids
143
Alcohol
* Most popular
* Decreased cognitive control
* Lack coordination, slurred speech
* Think slowly
* Disrupt REM sleep and forming memories
144
Barbiturates
* Used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety
* Anesthesia or anticonvulsant
* Not often prescribed because has bad side effects
145
Benzodiazepines
* Most commonly prescribed
* Sleep aids/anti anxiety/anti seizure
* Enhance brain's response to GABA
* Short (sleep), intermediate (sleep), or long-acting (anxiety)
146
Depressants
Lower body's basic functions and neural activity
* Decrease HR, decrease BP
* Vasodilate at low, vasoconstrictor at high
* Three categories: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines
147
Stimulants
Drugs that excite CNS, increase HR/BP, more alert/energetic
* Vasodilate
* Similar effect to stress, increased glucose metabolism in brain
* Have opposite affect of stimulants but can't be used to reverse their effects
* Ex: Caffeine, amphetamines (Adderall), meth, MDMA (stimulant/hallucinogen)
148
Hallucinogens (psychedelics)
* Distorted perceptions/hallucinations (seeing what's not there)
* Highlighted sensations
* Can give energy/calm down
* Emotional responses
* Ex: PCP, LSD, peyote
* Dilation of pupils (mydriasis)
149
Opiates (Natual)/Opioids (Synthetic)
* Similar effect as depressants but function differently
* Analgesic (reduces perception of pain)
* Act at body's receptor sites for endorphins
* Lead to euphoria
* Vasodilator and pul constrictor
*
* Ex: heroine, codeine, moprhine, oxycodone
150
Cannibis (Marijuana)
* Mix of all
* Can be hallucinogen/depressant/stimulant
* Can be present in blood for up to 3 months
* Tolerance can increase amount needed
151
Caffeine
* Inhibits adenosine receptors
* Can disrupt sleep
* Increases energy
* Withdrawal: Irritability, difficulty concentrating, depression
152
Nicotine
* Increase HR/BP
* Disrupts sleep
* Supresses appetite
* High levels: muscles relax and release stress reducing neurotransmitters
* Withdrawal: anxiety, insomnia, irritability
153
Cocaine
* Strong stimulant
* Brain realeases seratonin, dopamine, norepinephrine
* Intense crash and depression
154
Amphetamines/Methamphetamines
* Dopamine and euphoria for up to 8 hours
* Highly addictive
* Long term users lose ability to maintain dopamine levels
155
Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly
* Synthetic drug between stimulant and hallucinogen
* Effects: high BP, dehydration, overheating, death
* Can damage seratonin neurons
156
Drug Homeostasis
How you maintain temperature heartbeat etc.
* Occurs when resting
* Takes place with drugs
* Body recognizes same cues that are normal with drug use (ex: needle or same room) and brain tells body to get head start before taking drug so need more to get same high **habituation**
* If get the cues and don't take drug, body will crash
* If in new location but take same amount of drugs could overdose because body doesn't lower
157
Oral
* Ingesting something
* Slowest route
* 30 mins
* Ex: pills, alcohol
158
Inhalation
* Breathing/snorting/smoking
* Highly addictive but less than injecting
* 10 seconds
* Ex: tobacco, coke
159
Injection
* Most direct, straight to vein
* Fastest
* Very dangerous (ex: infected needles)
160
Transdermal
* Drug absorbed through ski
* Slow, released over several hours
* Ex: nicotine patch
161
Intramuscular
* Needle into muscle
* Slowly (vaccines)/quickly (epipen)
* Fastest route but injections more abused
* Faster = more addiction potential
162
Tolerance
Get used to drug so need more to get same effect
* Decreased sensitivity due to exposure
* **cross tolerance:** reduction in efficacy of new drug because common CNS target
163
Withdrawal
Stop after using for period of time
* Get sick/ill/fatal
Two stages:
1. Acute: few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different experiences for everyone
2. Post-Acute: fewer physical, more emotional/psychologic, same experience for everyone
164
Substance-Induced Disorders
* Conditions caused by substance
* Mood disorders, anxiety, sleep
165
Substance-Use Disorders
Drug causes serious degree of impariment functioning in life, work
* Problem with their substance use
* Use increasing amounts, stronger cravings
* Withdrawals
* Build up tolerance
166
Cognitive Behavioural Therpay (CBT)
* Phsychological drug treatment
* Congitive and behavioural components
* Recognize problematic thought patterns and develop better ones
* Anticipate problematic situations
167
Attention
Focus/concentrating on something by excluding other stimulus in environment
168
Divided Attention
* Attention is limited
* Switch in between two tasks instead of doing simultaneously
169
Directed Attention
Attention focused on single task
170
Exogenous/External Cues
* Don't have to direct to look at to notice
* Driven by bottom-up/external events
* Ex: bright colors, loud noises
171
Endogenous/Internal Cues
* Require knowledge to understand cue and intention to follow
* Driven by top-down/internal events
* Ex: mouse arrow
* **Cocktail Party Effect:** Can focus on one voice in loud environment, hearing someone call your name
172
In-Attentional/Perceptual Blindness
* Aren't aware of things not in visual when focus is elsewhere
* Don't see unexpected things right in front of you
* Ex: nearest fire extinguisher
173
Change Blindness
* Fail to noice change from previous to current state
* Ex: someone gets haircut
174
Distal Stimuli
* Object/events in world around you
* Aware of and respond
175
Proximal Stimuli
* Patterns of stimuli from objects/events that reach senses
* Ex: light on retina
176
Covert Orienting
Act of bringing attention to object/event without body/eye movement
177
Overt Orienting
Person turns all/parts of body to alter/maximise sensory impact
178
Attentional Capture
Attention captured by motion
179
Neglect Syndrome
Brain damage causes change/loss in spatial dimension of divided attention
180
Executive Attention
* Goal-directed behaviour
* Monitoring conflicts of internal processes
* Anticipating effects of behaviour
181
Broadbent's Early Selection Theory
All information goes to sensory register > selective filter (filters out what not to pay attention to) > perceptual process (identifies and assigns meaning) > conscious
182
Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory
Selective filter after perceptual process
* Selective filter decides what you pass on
* Problem because occurs really quickly (not reality)
183
Treisman's Attenuation Theory
Attenuator weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattenuated ear
* Sensory register > attenuator > perceptual process > conscious
184
Selective Attention
Take in all information but don't consciously process all
185
Spotlight Model of Attention
Selective attention from five senses
* **Priming:** exposure from one stimulus affects response to another
186
Resource Model of Attention
Limited resources overtaken if try to pay attention to too many things at once
* Not good at multitasking
* Supported by research
187
Task Similarity
Harder to multitask with similar things
188
Task Difficulty
Harder tasks require more focus
189
Information Processing Model
Sensory, working, and long-term memory
* Brains are similar to computers
* Input from environment, process it, output decision
* Doesn't describe where things happen in brain
* Bottom-up or stimulus driven model
* Assumes limited storage capacity
* Brain has limited capacity for attention
* **assumes serial processing, but has capacity for parallel processing**
190
Sensory Memory (Register)
Two components based on type of input
* iconic memory (what you see, lasts half a second)
* echoic memory (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds)
191
Partial Report Technique
Report one part of a whole field in cued recall
* Requires participants to identify subset of characters from visual display using cued recall
* Immediately after stimulus offset, paticipants could recall mosst
* 75% of visual display was accessible to memory
192
Whole Report Technique
* Required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in proper spatial locations as possible
* Could recall around 35%
193
Working (Short-Term) Memory
Sensory information you actually process
* Can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
* Stored while held in attention
194
Dual Coding Hypothesis
Easier to remember words associated with an image than either alone
195
Operational Span Testing
Maximum number of words that can be recalled after performing a simple math test and looking at words
196
Long-Term Memory
Capcity is unlimited
2 Categories:
1. Explicit (Declarative)
2. Implicit (Non-declarative)
197
Explicit Memory
* Facts/events you can clearly describe
* Focuses on recalling previous experiences/information
2 Categories:
1. Episodic: event related memories
2. Semantic: words/facts
198
Implicit Memory
* Can't articulate
* Previous experiences aid performance without conscious awareness
* Memories formed by conditioning/habits **(procedural memories)**
* Stored in basal ganglia
199
Priming
Implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus
**Negative priming:** prior exposure to stimulus negatively impacts response to same stimulus
* experiencing stimulus then ignoring it
* lowers speed to lower than un-primed levels
**Positive priming:** Caused by experiencing stimulus
* speeds up processing
* caused by spreading activation
200
Encoding
Transferring information from emporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory
201
Encoding Specificity
Enhanced memory when testing takes place under same condition
202
Rote Rehearsal
Repeating something to remember it
* Least effective
203
Chunking
Group information into meaningful categories we already know to make memorization easier
204
Mnemonic Devices
Link what you are trying to learn to previously exisiting long term memory
**Imagery** (make crazy)
**pegword system** (verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number)
205
Method of Loci
* Good for remembering things in order
* Link information to locations
206
Self-referencing
Think about new information and how it relates to you personally
207
Spacing
Spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods compared to all at once
208
Retrieval
Trying to remember something you have already learned
209
Priming
Prior activation of nodes/associations, often without awareness
210
Context
The environment you code and take the test in is helpful for brain
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State-Dependent
Your state at the moment you encode
* If you're in certain mood when encoding will remember when in same mood
212
Retrieval
Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory and bring in to conscious memory
213
Free Recall
* No cue recalling
* Vetter at recalling first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) on list
**Serial Position Curve/Effect:** Overall tendency to recall first few items and last few items well and middle items
214
Cued Recall
* Having extra clues to remember words
* Help retrieve information from long term memory
215
Recognition
* Easiest to recall
* Present two words and say which you heard
216
False Information
Inaccurate recollections of an event
217
Misleading Information
Saying certain words can influence how people remember events
218
Flashbulb Memories
Highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid
* Still susceptible to reconstruction
* Ex: hearing about 9/11
219
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
With repeated stimulation same presynaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential (stronger synapse)
* Brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories
* Connections between neurons strengthen
* Example of synaptic plasticity
* Neuron transmission flows from presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron
220
Decay in Memory
When something isn't encoded well or hasn't been retrieved in a while
221
Retroactive Interference
New learning impairs old information
Ex: writing new address makes it hard to remember old address
222
Proactive Interference
Something you learned in past impairs learning in future
223
Stable
Implicit memory (procedural memory like riding a bike) and recognition memory (being able to pick something out from a list)
224
Improve
Semantic memories improve until 60
* Have better cyrstallized IQ as age (using knowledge and experience)
* Emotional reasoning
225
Decline
* Recall becomes more difficult
* Episodic memories impaired (forming new is difficult)
* Processing speed (older people have a hard time outputting a response)
* Divided attention (harder to switch inbetween tasks, easily distracted)
* Prospective memory declines (remembering to do things in future)
226
Dementia
Decline in memory and other cognitive functions to point of interfering with daily life
227
Korsakoff's Syndrome
* Caused by lack of Vitamin B1 or thiamine (converts carbohydrates into glucose)
* Caused by eating disorders, malnutrition, and especially alcoholism
* Not progressive, if treated can be better
228
Wernicke's Enchephalopathy
* Precursor to Korsakoff's
* If diagnosed early can reverse damage or prevent further damage
229
Wernicke's Enchephalopathy
* Precursor to Korsakoff's
* If diagnosed early can reverse damage or prevent further damage
230
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to recall information previously encoded
* Ability to remember prior experiences
231
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to encode new memories
* Forming long term memories
232
Semantic Networks
Concepts organized in mind as connected ideas
233
Hierarchical Semantic Network
Store information in a hierarchical way
* Thoughts organized from higheer
234
Modified Semantic Network
Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge
235
Stage 1 (Piaget)
Sensorimotor Stage
* 0-2 years old
* Information through senses
* Object permanence: bject only exists if you can see it
236
Stage 2 (Piaget)
Preoperational Stage
* When children engage in pretend play
* Words symbolize objects and children start to understand symbols
* Egocentric: only concerned about self, no empathy
237
Stage 3 (Piaget)
Concrete Operational Stage
* 7-11 years old
* Same amount of material even if changes shape/form
* Ex: water not different if moving same amount to different size glass
* Learn empathy
* Reasoning of math skills
238
Stage 4 (Piaget)
Formal Operational Stage
* Abstract consequences
* Moral reasoning (more like adults)
239
Assimilation
How we describe new information/experiences in terms of current understandings/schemas
240
Accommodation
How we adjust schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember
241
Means-End Analysis
Heuristic where analyze main problem and break down into smaller problems
* Attack problem most different from current state and goal state
242
Availability Heuristic
Using examples that easily come to mind
* Decision making heuristic
243
Representativeness Heuristic
People look for most representative answer
* Look to match prototype
* Can lead to **conjunction fallacy:** co-occurence of two instances is more likely than a single one
244
Belief Perseverance
Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts
245
Confirmation Bias
Actively seek out only confirming facts
246
Framing Effects
How you present the decision can affect the decision
Save x amount or let y amount die
247
Theory of General Intelligence (1)
* People who score well on one test tend to score well on others
* Factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities
* Factors underlying consistent abilities is g factor (general intelligence factor)
* Charles Spearman
248
3 Types of Intelligences
Analytical intelligence (academic), creative intelligence (adapt and generate new ideas), practical intelligence (problem solving)
249
Fluid Intelligence
Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, like new logic problems
* Helps see patterns, organize, identify features, and spatial relationships
250
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
* Increases or stays the same as it ages
* Based on fact, experience, and prior learning
251
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
* Increases or stays the same as it ages
* Based on fact, experience, and prior learning
252
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory
* Can have different strengths, dont have to have all
* L.L.Thurnstone
253
Theory of Multiple Intelligence
9 independent intelligences
* Don't depend on each other
* Howard Gardner
254
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
3 independent intelligences
* Based on real world success: analytical, creative, practical
255
Broca's Area
Speak/language expression
Frontal lobe
**Broca's Aphasia:** trouble producing speech
256
Wernicke's Area
Sound processing/understanding
Temporal lobe
**Wernicke's Aphasia:** words don't make any sense
257
Corpus callosum
Thick band of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres
* If this is cut leads to split-brain
258
Lerft Side vs Right
259
Relativism (Weak Linguistic Determinism)
Language influences thought
* Influences but DOES NOT determineontext of everyday encounters
* Differences in language between cultures
260
Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis (Strong Linguistic Determinism)
Language determines thought completely
* People understand world through language, which shapes how we view the world
261
Nativist Perspective
Children are born with ability to learn language
* Humans have language acquisiton device (LAD) that allow to learn a language
* Critical period (8-9) to learn language
* Noam Chomsky
262
Phonology
Phonetic compound, actual sound of language
* 40 phonemes
* Distinctions between sounds
263
Morphology
Structure of words
* Words are composed of many building blocks called morphemes
264
Semantics
Associate meaning with a word
265
Syntax
How words are put together into sentences
266
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
* Affected by prosody (rhythm, cadence, inflection)
267
Limbic System
* Set of structures in brain
* Structures play a role in emotions
* Storage/retrieval of memories (especially if emotional)
MEMORY: HAT Hippo
Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Hippocampus
268
Thalamus
Sensory relay station
* Everythiing you hear/taste/etc.
* Nerves > thalamus (directs to correct part of brain)
* Emotions rely on senses
* Smell is ONLY one that bypasses and goes to amygdala area
* Above brainstem
269
Amygdala
Agression center
* Produces anger/violence/fear/anxiety
* If destroyed, mellowing effect
**Kluver-Bucy Syndrome:** bilateral destruction, can lead to hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behaviour
270
Hippocampus
Key role in forming new memories
* Short term memory> long term memory
* if destroyed have old memories, but can't make new memories (anterograde amnesia)
* Area with lot of gluticocorticoid receptors
271
Hypothalamus
In limbic system, regulates autonomic nervous system (ANS)
* Flight or fight vs rest and digest
* Controls endocrine system by triggering hormones
* Hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
272
Left Cerebral Cortex
Positive emotions evoke more activity on left side
273
Right Cerebral Cortex
Negative emotions evoke more activity on right side
274
Prefrontal Cortex
Responsible for higher-order functioning
* Everything that makes us human
* Problem solving, deiciosn making, social interactions
275
Sympathetic Nervous System
fight or flight
result due to fear effects
* pupils dilate (want to see better/let in more light)
* decrease in salivation (nervous when doing pulic speaking)
* increased respiration rate (more O2)
* increased glucose release (more energy)
* increased adrenaline (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
* decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert it)
* increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to vital organs)
276
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Rest and digest
Opposite effect of sympathetic nervous system
* pupils constrict
* inreased salivation
* decreased respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal)
* increased glucose storage (digesting food)
* decreased adrenaline
* increased digestion
277
Physiological Components
When surprised heart rate may increase, muscles tense, temperature increase
278
Cognitive Components
Metal assessment made of appraisals of events, thoughts, and expectations
279
Behavioural Components
Emotions produce different behavioral responses (ex: ody language, facial expression)
* Vary and interpreted differently
280
6 Main Universal Emotions
FAHDSS
1. Fear (eyebrows raised, wrinkles in forehead, eyes and mouth open, lips drawn back)
2. Anger (penetrating stare, eyelids tense, lips pressed together)
3. Happiness (raised cheeks, smiles and smile lines)
4. Disgust (raised and wrinkled cheeks, eyebrows lowered)
5. Sadness (uplifted inner eyebrows, frown)
6. Surprise (raised eyebrows, wide eyes, jaw dropped, forehead wrinkles, raised upper lip, lower lid down)
281
James-Lange Theory
Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses
event > physiological response > interpretation > emotion
282
Cannon-Bard Theory
Found flaws in idea that physiological esponse triggered emotion
Physiological response and emotions occur at the same time
Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression
* Can experience physiological repsonse without emotion (heart racing after exercise)
* Many different emotions had same physiological response
* Physiological response was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to occur instantly
283
Schachter-Singer (Two-factor Theory of Emotion)
Physiological and cognitive esponses simultaneously form experience of emotion
If physiologically aroused, don't feel specific emotion until able to label/identify reason
* event > physiological response > identify reason for situation (consciously) > emotion
284
Lazarus Theory
Experience of emotion depends on how situations cognitively appraised (labelled)
* Labelled good = positive
* Labelled bad = negative
* How labelled based on cultural/individual differences
* Ex: skydiving (exhilarating or terrifying)
* Event > label the event (appraisal) > emotion and physiological respo based on appraisal if + or -
LAzarus = LAbel
285
Appraisal Theory of Stress
Stress arises less from physical events but from assessment/intepretation of stresses/events
286
Primary Appraisal
Assessing stress in present situation
If negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal
3 Categories of Response:
1. Irrelevant: see stress but not important
2. Benign/Positive
3. Stressful/Negative
287
Secondary Appraisal
Evaluation of individual's ability to cope with a situation
* Harm: what damage has already been caused
* Threat: how much damage could be caused
* Challenge: how situation can be overcome/conquered
288
Stressors
1. Significant life changes: changes in personal life
* Ex: death of loved one, marriage, losing job, having kids, leaving home
2. Catastrophic Events: large scale event that everyone considers threatening
* Ex: wars, natural disasters
3. Daily hassles: seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life
* Ex: long lines, traffic, forgetting keys
* usually accompanies inadequate income/no employment
4. Ambient: global stresses integrated into environment
* Can negatively impact even if not aware
* Ex: pollution, noise, crowding
289
Adrenal Glands
* Adrenal glands release **catecholamine's:** tyrosine derivatives developed from ectoderm (epinephrine and norepinepherine)
Adrenal Cortex: releases **glucocorticoid (cortisol)::** sterioid hormone that redistributes glucose energy in body and supressing immune system
290
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Hans Selye
1. Alarm Phase: stress reaction starts, heart races, resources mobilized, ready for fight or flight
2. Resistance: fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, lots of cortisol
3. Exhaustion: resistance isn't followed by recovery, body's stress resources depleted, tissues dampened and immune system susceptible to illness (negative impact of long term stress)
291
Stress on Heart
Hypertension (high BP), vscular disease, coronary artery disease
292
Stress on Metabolism
* Body secretes cortisol and glucagon
* Glucose builds up in blood
293
Stress on Reproduction
* Shut down in women when stressed
* FSH/LH/estrogen/progesterone inhibited
* Reduced testosterone and impotence
294
Stress on Immunity
Acute stress: inflammation
Chronic stress: stop activating immune system, suppresses
295
Frontal Cortex
Impulse control, reasoning, judgement, and planning
* Lots of glucocorticoid receptors (stress)
296
Depression
**Anhedonia:** inability to experience leasure, so percieve more stressors
Anterior cingulate stops responding to serotonin
297
Three As of Stress
1. Anger:
Angrier individuals were more likely to experience stress related illnesses (ex: heart attack)
Fight of sympathetic response
2. Anxiety:
Centers on amygdala, fears and phobias so percieve things as more scary
Flight of sympathetic response
3. Addiction:
Bad options for coping mechanisms
Impairment to frontal cortex (judgement) increases likelihood of inappropriate coping
298
Lower Motor Neurons
Efferent neurons of the PNS synpase on control skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is other end of motor unit forma **neuromuscular junction**
* Control muscles of limbs and trunk
* LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck
Lower Motor Neuron Signs:
* Atrophy of skeletal muscle
* Fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle)
* Hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle, how much muscle contracted when relaxed)
* Hyporeflexia (decreased muscle strength reflex)
299
Somatosensation
Position sense, vibration, touch, pain, temperature
Mechanoreceptors: position, vibration, touch (fast, large diameter axon, thick myelin sheath)
Nociceptors: pain (slow, small diameter axon)
Thermoreceptors: temperature (slow, small diameter axon)
300
Receptors
301
Mechanoreceptors
302
Muscle Reflexes
Afferent (stimulus) and efferent (response)
Muscle stretch reflex happens on same side causing muscle to contract after stretched
303
Autonomic Nervous System
No conscious involvement
Efferent neurons in peripheral nervous system (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells)
Divide into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
**SNS:** starts middle of spinal chord, short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine, second neuron goes to target cell (short then long), fight or flight
**PNS:** starts at brain stem or bottom of spinal chord, first neuron sends long axon, synapse with ganglion of second neuron, sends short axon to target cell (long then short), rest or digest
304
Gray matter
Most of neuron somas, inside of spinal chord
305
White Matter
Myelinated axons, outside of spinal chord
306
Upper Motor Neurons
* Control LMNs
* Starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN **(corticospinal tract, collection of axons)**
* **corticobulbar tract, goes to brainstem**
Upper Motor Signs:
1. Hyperreflexia (increase in muscle stretch reflex, without periodic stimulation of LMNS by UMNs become hypersensitive and get bigger reflex)
2. Clonus (rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle, caused by hyperreflexia)
3. Hypertonia (increased tone of skeletal muscles, increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch
4. Extensor Plantar Response (If scrape hard object along bottom of foot toes will come down on the object, flexor, toes extend up, extensor)
307
Frontal Lobe
Motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca's area (speech production)
308
Parietal Lobe
Somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orientation in 3D)
**Somatosensory Cortex:** motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal)
Involved in recieving sensory signals from skin
309
Occipital Lobe
Vision, "striate cortex" (striated cells)
310
Temporal Cortex
Sound, Wernicke's area
311
Dominant Hemispheres
Left hemisphere dominates for most people
**Dominant hemisphere:** language, math
**Non-dominant:** Emotional tone of language, if people happy/sad/anxious, reativity, music, special processing, big picture concepts
Hemispheres communicate via corpus callosum
312
Medulla & Pons
Controls heart beat/breathing and cross over point for nerves
313
Reticular Formation
Filters information and sends important information to thalamus
* Sleep/wake cycle (arousal)
* Ability to be aware
* From brainstem to other brain areas
* Autonomic function
* Controlling respiration, digestion, lower/higher functions
314
Cerebellum
Coordinates voluntary movement (motor plan information sent here and recieves position sense information sends feedback to cerebellum and motor cortex)
* Middle cerebellum: coordinates middle body movement and walking, sides are involved in movement of limbs (arms and legs) and speech and movement of eyes
* Alcohol effects brain here
315
Long Tracts
Collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
2 important Ones:
1. Motor (UMNs)
2. Somatosensory
316
Cranial Nerves
Most are attached to brainstem
12 pairs
317
Basal Ganglia
* Major role in motor functions
* Don't have UMNs
* Help motor areas to perform proper movement
* Cognition and emotion
318
Glutamate
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter
Associated with increased corticol arousal
**Recticular Activating System:** has diffuse projection of glutamate to cerebral cortex (required for consciousness, midbrain structures)
319
GABA (brain) & Glycine (spinal chord)
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters
320
Acetylcholine
* Nuclei (basal and septal nuclei) in frontal lobe that releases to cerebral cortex
* Released for LMNs
* Autonomic nervous system
321
Histamine
* From hypothalamus
* Sends to cerebral cortex
322
Norepinephrine
* Area in pons (locus coeruleus) that releases to cerebral cortex
* Some in autonomic nervous system but less than acetylcholine
