REVIEW Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
Taxonomic Hierarchy
A
• Includes: − Kingdom − Division/Phylum − Class − Order − Family − Genus − Species
2
Q
Kingdoms
A
• Are the most general taxon used in classifying organisms • Include: − Monera − Prostita − Fungi − Plantae − Animalia
3
Q
Divisions
A
• Have the standard suffix -phyta or -phtina
• Are indicative of distinctive modes of reproduction and morphology of
plants
• Are the broadcast categories in the plant kingdom
• Are used when referring to plants
− typically phylum
4
Q
Classes
A
• Have the standard suffix -opsida or -idae
• Are included in divisions
− many classes are in each division
5
Q
Orders
A
• Have the standard suffix –ales or –inae
• Are included in classes
− many orders are in each class
6
Q
Families
A
• Have the standard suffix -aceae • Share common characteristics seen in: − plant appearances • some families may have great diversity in appearance − seed location and appearance − growth habit • Share many comparable factors such as: − cultural requirements − insect problems − disease problems
7
Q
Genus
A
• Is sometimes followed by:
− sp.: indicates a single unidentified species
− spp.: refers to multiple species within a genus
• neither are underlined or italicized
• i.e. Acer sp.
8
Q
Species
A
• Is analogous to the first name of the plant
− more specific than genus
• Refers to groupings of plants which consistently produce plants of
the same types
9
Q
Cells and types
A
• Are the smallest living unit of an organism
• Are specialized for a specific function
• Are organized into tissue
• Are totipotent within plants
− totipotency is the unique ability of plants cells to divide, grow
and differentiate into new cells which hold the same genetic identity as the mother cell
− parenchyma cells are some of the least specialized and most likely to remain totipotent
11. Cells types
• Include:
− parenchyma cells
− sclerenchyma cells
− collenchyma cells
− xylem tissue cells
− phloem tissue cells
− epidermal cells
10
Q
Parenchyma Cells
A
• Are the least specialized plant cells
• Are living at maturity
• Contain thin, flexible cell walls
• Have a large central vacuole
• Have the ability to separate into other cells under special conditions
− occurs after injury to repair and replace organs
11
Q
Collenchyma Cells
A
• Contain thicker primary cell walls − have uneven thickness • Are living at maturity • Are found in ground tissue • Are used in support of herbaceous plants − i.e. strings in celery • Provide support in young plants
12
Q
. Sclerenchyma Cells and types
A
• Contain thick secondary cell walls which harden to strengthen the plant
• Are dead at functional maturity
• Cannot increase in length
• Are found in ground tissue
Sclerenchyma Cells types
• Include:
− fibers: long, slender cells with a secondary cell wall
• i.e. hemp fibers in rope
− sclereids: shorter cells with an irregular shape
• i.e. stone cells in pears
13
Q
Xylem Tissue Cells
A
• Make up the woody walls of plants
• Contain thick secondary cell walls
− deposited unevenly in a coil-like pattern to enable
stretching
• Are dead at functional maturity
• Are found in vascular tissue
• Include parenchyma cells and non-living conductive cells such as:
− tracheids: long, slender cells connected by pits
− vessels: shorter, larger diameter cells with perforated cell wall
ends
• found only in angiosperms
14
Q
Phloem Tissue Cells
A
• Are alive at functional maturity
• Are found in vascular tissue
• Include conductive cells such as:
− sieve-tube members: conduit for sucrose transport
− companion cells: contain a nucleus which may control the sieve-tube element and may aid in sucrose loading
15
Q
Epidermal Cells
A
• Prevent water loss and provide a barrier against fungi and other
invaders
• Are closely packed, contain little inter-cellular space
• Are found in dermal tissue
• Are located under a waxy cuticle layer which aids in
prevention of water loss
• Include:
− guard cells: cover stomata openings
• regulate exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon
dioxide
16
Q
Cell Membrane
A
• Surrounds the cell as a thin layer of protein (about eighth-millionths of a
millimeter thick)
• Can be found inside the cell wall
• Allows some substances to pass into the cell while blocking others
• Is also known as the plasma membrane
• Is involved in cellulose production for the assembly of cell walls
• Is composed of highly structured proteins and phospho-lipids
17
Q
Cell Wall
A
- Are found only in plants
- surrounds the cell
- Provides structure and support
- Bonds with other cell walls to create plant structure
18
Q
Chloroplast
A
- Is an elongated organelle containing chlorophyll
* converts light and carbon dioxide to usable energy
19
Q
Cytoplasm
A
• Is a gel-like material outside the nucleus, but inside cell
membrane
• Contains all other organelles floating in cytoplasm
20
Q
Golgi Apparatus
A
• Is a flat, layered organelle (dictyosomes) which resembles a stack of
pancakes
• Is located near the nucleus
• Packages proteins and carbohydrates for export from the cell
• Modifies proteins and lipids before distributing them
21
Q
Mitochondria
A
- Is the powerhouse of the cell
- Are spherical, rod-shaped organelles
- Have a double membrane
- Converts energy stored in glucose to ATP for the cell (Respiration)
22
Q
Nucleus
A
- Controls functions of the cell
- Contains the genetic material (DNA) of the cell
- Is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
23
Q
Ribosomes
A
- Are small organelles found in large numbers in the cytoplasm
- Create proteins from amino acids
- Can only be seen with an electron microscope
- Composed of two subunits containing RNA and proteins
24
Q
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
A
• Is located in the cytoplasm
• Is covered with ribosomes which give it a rough appearance
• Transports materials through the cell, secretes, stores and creates
proteins
25
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
* Is located in the cytoplasm
* Transports materials through the cell
* Contains enzymes
* Produces and digests lipids and membrane proteins
26
Vacuole
* Is surrounded by a membrane
* Is filled with fluid
* Takes up most of the cell
* Maintains the shape of the cell
* Is the “cell trash can”
27
Plant Parts
```
• Include:
− roots
− stems
− leaves
− flowers
− fruit
− seeds
```
28
Roots and Types
* Are usually underground
* Anchor plants in soil
* absorb water and nutrients
* Provide physical support for the stem
* Can store food for plant
```
• Include:
− taproots
− lateral roots
− adventitious roots
− fibrous roots
```
29
Taproot
```
• Characteristics are:
− single, dominant roots
− grow directly downward
− sprout other fibrous roots
− can be modified for food and water storage and uptake
```
30
Lateral Roots
* Extend horizontally from the taproot
| * Extract nutrients and water from the soil
31
Adventitious Roots
* Form from shoot tissues
* Arise in stems and leaves
* Are used when cloning plants from cuttings
32
Fibrous Roots
* Are thin, slender roots
* Collect water and nutrients close to the soil surface
* sprout from primary roots
33
Stems
* support leaves, flowers and fruit
* Transport carbohydrates and nutrients throughout the plant
* Transports water from the roots to the plant (xylem)
34
Leaves
* Are the major site of food production for the plant (chloroplasts)
* Contain structures which convert sunlight to chemical energy (photosynthesis)
* Create food and energy in the plant through the process of photosynthesis
35
Leaf Parts
```
• Include:
− midrib
• main, central vein of a leaf
− petiole
• leaf stalk which attaches the leaf to the plant
− stem
• main support of the plant
− stipule
• small, leaf-like appendages at the base of the
petiole
− vein
• transports water, minerals and food energy throughout
the plant
```
36
Leaf Vein Patterns
• Include:
− parallel
• several large veins run alongside each other from the base of the blade to the tip (monocots)
− palmate
• several main veins of about equal size, all of which extend from a common point at the base of the leaf
(dicots)
− pinnate
• one large, central vein, the midrib, with other large
veins branching from the sides
37
Leaf Edges
* Are also known as leaf margins
* Vary in texture and appearance
* Are a major characteristic in the determination of plant type
38
Leaf Shape
• Is of major importance in identifying plants
• Includes:
− blade shape: shape of the entire leaf
− leaf apex shape: tip of the leaf
− leaf base shape: base of the leaf where it connects to
the node
39
Leaf Venation
• Is a term used to describe the pattern in which leaf veins are
organized
• Is split into two principal types:
− parallel-veined leaves: numerous veins run parallel to each other
− net-veined leaves: veins branch from main midrib(s) and subdivide
into a complicated network of veins
40
Leaf Arrangement
• Is a characteristic used in identifying plants
• Describes the position and location of leaves on the stem of the
plant
• Occurs on the stem and on petioles
41
Leaflet Arrangement on Petioles
• May be broken down into two types:
− compound: many leaflets arise from the same petiole
• pinnately compound: leaflets arranged on both sides of a
stem
• palmately compound: leaflets radiate from a central
point
• double pinnately compound: double set of compound leaflets
42
Leaf Arrangement on Stems
• May be broken down into four types:
− alternate: staggered arrangement along stem
− opposite: leaf pairs arranged directly across from each other
− rosette: leaves located at base; arranged in a spiral
cluster
− whorled: leaves are arranged in a ring
43
. Flowers
* Are organs for sexual reproduction
* Produce gametes
* Play a key role in pollination
44
Flower Parts
• Include:
− peduncle
• flower stalk
− receptacle
• part of flower stalk bearing floral organs
− sepal
• leaf structures at flower base, protects young buds, all
together known as calyx
− petal
• located in and above the sepals, attracts
pollinators, all together known as corolla
− stamen
• male part of the flower, makes pollen grains
− filament
• stalk of the stamen, contains the anther
− anther
• bears pollen
− pollen
• grains containing the male sex cells
− pistil
• female part of the flower
− stigma
• sticky top of pistil, receptive surface for pollen
grains
− style
• stalk of the pisitl, where pollen tube grows
− ovary
• base of the pistil, matures to become fruit
− ovule
• located in the ovary, carries female sex cells
45
Plant Growth
```
• Includes the following stages:
− germination
− vegetative development
− reproductive development
• May be affected by the following:
− water
− light (red and blue light are absorbed and trigger plant
growth; green light is reflected)
− temperature
− competition
```
46
Germination
```
• Requires the following external factors:
− specific temps
− moisture level
− oxygen
− light
```
47
Plant Hormones & Growth Regulators
• Can be compounds produced within the plant (phytohormones) or maybe manufactured compounds (plant growth regulators)
− auxin causes the plant stem to tip, known as phototropism
− cytokinins are used to prolong storage life
− gibberellins are applied to grapes to increase berry size and
produce looser clusters
− ethylene can be applied to a field of crops to ensure all
fruit will ripen simultaneously
48
Plant Processes
```
• Allow plants to produce their own food and adapt to changes in
their environment
• Include the following:
− absorption
− photosynthesis
− respiration
− transpiration
```
49
Absorption
• Occurs when water is drawn into the root and minerals dissolve
• Occurs in the endodermis
• Allows certain molecules to be absorbed and pumps out other molecules
• Is increased when surface area increases
− roots hairs: extensions of root cells
• increase surface area
− mycorrhizae: fungal associations with roots
• greatly increase surface area
50
Photosynthesis
• Is the process of carbon dioxide and water reacting with light energy to
form photosynthates and release oxygen as a byproduct
− requires light energy, CO2 and H2O
− occurs in the chloroplasts
• Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
− 6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6+6O2
• Allows plants to make their own food and convert it to energy
51
Respiration
• Is the process of a cell releasing energy by breaking down
glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
• Is the opposite reaction of photosynthesis
• Creates a net energy production of 36 units of ATP
52
Transpiration
• Is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves and is similar to perspiration in humans
53
The Cell Cycle
```
• Describes the life of the cell
• Can be divided into two phases
− Interphase
• G1 phase
• S phase
• G2 phase
− mitosis (M Phase)
• prophase
• metaphase
• anaphase
• telophase
```
54
Interphase
* Is where the cell spends the most of its time
| * Is when the cell carries out most of its normal functions
55
G1 Phase
```
• Stands for Gap 1 phase
• Is also known as a growth phase
• Is the long period before mitosis in which the cell:
− grows
− carries out protein synthesis
− performs other cellular functions
```
56
S Phase
* Is known as the synthesis phase
* Occurs after the G1 phase
* Is when the cell replicates its DNA
57
G2 Phase
* Stands for Gap 2 phase
* Is also known as a growth phase
* Occurs after the S Phase
* Allows cell to continue to carry out normal functions
58
M Phase
• Is also known as mitosis
• Is a process by which new cells are created
• Results in 2 daughter nuclei
− with genetic material identical to each other and the mother cell
59
Mitosis
```
• Is important for:
− cell growth
− cell replacement
• cells are continually sloughed off and replaced
− regeneration of plant parts
− vegetative reproduction
• continuous production of genetically identical cells and
offspring
• Steps include:
− prophase
− metaphase
− anaphase
− telophase
```
60
Prophase
• Is the 1st stage of mitosis
• Steps include:
− chromosomes condense and become visible
− centrosomes begin moving to the opposite ends of the cell known
as poles
• Steps include:
− nuclear membrane dissolves
− fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle
− spindle fibers attach to each sister chromatid at the
centromere
61
Metaphase
• Steps include:
− centrosomes complete migration to the poles
− chromosomes align in the middle of the cell known as the equator
62
Anaphase
• Steps include:
− spindels attached to centromeres begin to shorten
• exerts force on sister chromatids and pulls them
apart
• Steps include:
− shortening of spindle fibers continues, pulling chromatids to
opposite poles
• ensures identical sets of chromosomes are applied
to each daughter cell
63
Telophase
• Steps include:
− chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell
• new membranes form around daughter nuclei
− chromosomes and spindle fibers disperse
− nuclear envelope forms
− completion of cytokinesis
• two daughter cells are created
64
DNA
• Stands for deoxyribose nucleic acid
• Carries genes which contain genetic material
• Is located in the nucleus
• Stores and processes information in the cell
• Is made up of nucleotides which consist of:
− five carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
− nitrogen base attached to the sugar
− phosphate group
• Are building blocks of nucleic acids
65
Genes
• Are a sequence of DNA
− DNA: a tightly wound molecule found in chromosomes
• Code for a specific protein which is involved in the expression
of a trait
− allows them to produce hereditary traits in offspring
66
Plant Breeding
• Is the application of genetic principles to create or manipulate
significant traits in plant production
• Increases efficiency by combining desirable traits
− develop improved offspring
• Was explored by Gregor Mendel
− his experiments led to many discoveries in the science of plant
breeding
67
. Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance
```
• Include:
− fundamental theory of heredity
− dominance
− segregation
− independent assortment
```
68
Fundamental Theory of Heredity
• Proved when parent plants are crossed, dominant traits are always
apparent in the progeny
− recessive traits are hidden until after the 1st generation
• Proved traits remain distinct in successive generations
• Discovered inheritance factors are alleles which are different variants of the same gene
− includes:
• homozygous
• heterozygous
69
Homozygous Genotype
• Is when an organism has two copies of the same allele for a gene
• Includes:
− dominant: two dominant alleles for a particular trait
− recessive: two recessive alleles for a particular trait
70
Heterozygous Genotype
* Is when an organism has two different copies of an allele for a gene
* Is the combination of one dominant allele and one recessive allele for a particular trait
* Refers to an organism which exhibits the dominant trait but is a carrier of the recessive trait
71
Genetic Engineering
• Is also known as genetic modification or genetic improvement
• Is the process of moving genes from one organism to another
• Allows the transfer of useful characteristics by inserting genes from
another organism
• Includes:
− DNA extraction
− gel electrophoresis
− insertion of foreign DNA into a host plant
72
Process of Genetic Engineering
```
• Includes:
− DNA extraction
− gene cloning
− gene design
− transformation
− backcross breeding
```
73
DNA Extraction
• Is the first step in genetic engineering
• Allows all of the DNA of an organism to be extracted at once
• Involves taking a sample containing a gene of interest
− is taken through a series of step which seperate the DNA
from other parts of the cell
74
Gene Cloning
• Is the second step in genetic engineering
• Is used to separate single genes of interest from the rest of the genes
extracted
• Involves the duplication of thousand of copies of the gene of
interest
75
Gene Design
• Is the third step in genetic engineering
• Relies on the One Gene, One enzyme Theory
− a single gene stores information which directs the production of a
single enzyme
• Involves cutting the gene with enzymes and replacing certain
parts
− ensures the gene to work once placed inside another organism
76
Transformation
• Is the fourth step in genetic engineering
• Is also known as gene insertion
• Involves trying to transport the gene and deliver them to the nucleus
without killing the cell
• Is a method by which recombinant DNA is made
104. Transformation
• Involves the success of a DNA being inserted into the chromosome
− cells which receive the new gene are known as transgenic
• Involves the use of tissue culture to spread masses of plant
cells
− since inserting a copy of the transgene into millions of cells is not
possible
77
Backcross Breeding
• Is the final step in genetic engineering
• Involves the crossing of transgenic plants with elite breeding lines
− combines desired traits and the transgene into a single line
• Involves the offspring to be repeatedly crossed back to the elite line
− used to obtain a high yielding transgenic line
• Results in a plant with high yield potential which express the
trait encoded by the transgene
78
Structure & Function of Organic Molecules
```
• Include:
− proteins
− carbs
− lipids
− nucleic acids
```
79
Proteins
* Are made up of amino acids
| * Serve as structural elements in the cytoskeleton
80
Carbohydrates
• Are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• Perform the following functions:
− energy metabolism in cells
− composition of the cell wall (cellulose)
− storing and yielding energy
81
Lipids
• Provide structure in:
− cellular membranes
− chloroplasts
82
. Soil
```
• Is the necessary medium for nutrient distribution; water and chemical
consumption; and plant stability
• Requirements include:
− orgainisms to help cycle nutrients
− nutrients and minerals
− water
• Note: A good all-around soil is a loam, a mixture of sand, silt
and clay
```
83
Soil pH
```
• Is the measurement of the alkalinity or acidity of soil
• Is measured on a scale of 0-14
− acidic: less than seven
− basic or alkaline: greater than seven
− neutral: 7
```
84
Environmental Factors Affecting Plants
• Include:
− hail
• removes anatomical features and inhibits future growth
− cold weather or freezes
• cell damage and death
• widespread phosphorus deficiency problems
• some plants can do well below freezing temperatures
− carrots
− blueberries
− spinach
```
− heat
• wilting leaves
− flooding
• can eliminate a plant’s ability to utilize respiration
− lightning
• burns plant cells and tissue
• can cause necrosis
− fires
• burns plant cells and tissue
```
85
Hydroponics
• Is the production of plants without a soil medium
• Utilizes only water, sunlight and nutrients
• Is used to efficiently produce plants when soil mediums are not desired,
needed or available
• Is utilized within greenhouses in areas with environments not suitable
for plant production
86
Pests
• Are any life forms competing for resources
• Are plants or animals detrimental to humans or human concerns
• Are an organism which pose a threat to other organisms’ health
• Are parasites:
− organism which lives on or inside another organism
− obtains nutrients from host
− detriment to the host
```
• Can be any of the following:
− insects
− vertebrates
− nematodes
− weeds
− pathogens
• fungal
• bacterial
• viral
```
87
Disease
* Is any condition interferring with normal growth and development
* Is caused by living or non-living agents
* Can affect any area on a plant
* Note: fungi, Bacteria and Viruses are all types of pathogens
88
Disease: Living Agents
```
• Are referred to as plant pathogens
− anything causing harm to plants
• Include microorganisms, such as:
− fungi
− bacteria
```
89
Fungal Diseases
• Spread from plant to plant via wind, insects, rain, soil and machinery
• Can be transmitted by seeds
• Can be waterborne
• Are most common and easiest to treat
• Treatment can include:
− sanitation
− reduce watering
− increase air flow
6. Fungal Diseases
• Usually start with spotted or discolored leaves and stems
− dry, brown margins and dead tissue or necrotic lesions
• Are controlled with dusts or sprays
• Are nearly impossible to eliminate if not treated immediately, especially
soil-borne disease
90
Life Cycle of Fungi
```
• Includes four stages:
− spore production
− spore
− spore germination
− hyphal growth
```
91
Boll Rot
• Scientific Name: Gibberella Fujikuroi
• Characteristics:
− begins as small black spots on bolls of cotton and rice
• white mold may also appear
− eventually affects entire boll
− causes bolls to appear black or brown and have a very hard
surface
− results in bolls opening too early or not at all
• Environmental conditions:
− wet weather
− humidity
92
Corn Smut
```
• Scientific Name: Ustilago maydis
• Characteristics:
− occurs on ears, tassles, nodes, internodes, leaves and
aerial roots
− forms large, white masses called galls
− can grow up to five inches in diameter
```
93
Crown Rot
```
• Scientific Name: Sclerotium delphinii
• Characteristics:
− occurs in wide range of plants
− develops brown areas in the root cortex and crown
− stunts plant growth
− affects entire plant
− causes plants to wilt and die
− can cause drastic reductions in crop yields
```
94
Damping Off
```
• Scientific Name: Pythium Spp.
• Characteristics:
− attacks seeds before germination
− causes seeds to decay
− seeds become soft and dark-brown
− most infected seeds never sprout
− affects germinating seeds
12. Damping Off
• Characteristics:
− seeds shrivel and darken
− causes seeding stem tissue to weaken and decay
− affects mature plants at soil level
− plants begin to wilt and fall over
```
95
Downy Mildew
```
• Scientific Name: Albugo spp., Bremia spp., peronospora spp.,
Pseudoperonospora spp.
• Characteristics:
− is found on many vegetable crops
− initially infects leaves
− turn yellow or brown
− white or purple mold spots appear on underside of leaf
• Environmental conditions:
− cool, wet weather
− high humidity
```
96
Early Blight
```
• Scientific Name: Alternaria solani
• Characteristics:
− is common in potatoes and tomatoes
− forms small, dark-brown spots on leaves, which enlarge and
merge together
− causes leaves to die
− covers potato tubers with brown spots
− is also found on stems and fruit of tomato plants
```
97
Gray Mold
• Scientific Name: boytris spp.
• Characteristics:
− is also referred to as Botrytis blight or Botrytis fruit rot
− infects an array of vegetables, herbaceous and woody plants
− forms masses of gray or brown spores on leaves
98
Mildews
• Are a form of mold
• Are commonly found in damp, moist, shaded places
• Affect leaves, stems, buds, flowers and fruits
− leaves will turn pink, blue or purple and drop prematurely
• Are usually white, gray, green or black
99
Bacterial Diseases
• Are easier to prevent rather than cure
• Enter plants through wounds or natural openings, such as the stomata
• Easily occur under the following conditions:
− high humidity
− poor air circulation
− irregular watering
− poor soil drainage
− fluctuating temperatures
100
Disease: Non-Living Agents
```
• Include:
− environmental stress on plants, such as:
• air pollution
• drought
• hail
• wind
− cultural care
− toxic chemicals
− viruses
```
101
Viruses
```
• Are microscopic, infectious agents consisting of a protein coat
surrounding nucleic acid
• Multiply in cells of living hosts
• Are recognized by the following symptoms:
− leaf curling
− leaf discoloartion
− ring spots on leaves
− stunted growth
• Can be prevented by:
− planting disease-resistant varieties
− controlling pests carrying viruses
− removing and destroying infected plants
− controlling weeds
− handling foliage when dry
• Can be spread by:
− infected insects, plants and microorganisms
```
102
Mosaic Virus
```
• Characteristics:
− affects tomatoes, cucumbers and soybeans
− affects plants at all growth stages
− causes leaves to curl and turn yellow
− stunts plant growth
− deforms fruit
− forms blister-like infections on leaves and molting occurs
− can be spread by the following:
• infected seeds
• contaminated tools and equipment
• infected crop debris
• Environmental conditions:
− transmitted by inscets
• Prevention methods:
− plant disease-resistant varieties
− control insects carrying the disease
− remove and destroy infected plants
− control weeds
• Treatment methods:
− no known treatment is available
• follow prevention methods
```
103
Insects
```
• Are members of the arthropada phylum
• Damage lawns, crops and other plants by feeding off roots, leaves and
fruits
• Can spread disease among plants
• Are members of the class Insecta
− class characteristics include:
• 3 pairs of legs
• three body segments
• two pairs of wings (typically)
• one pair of antennae
• one pair of eyes
− examples include:
• ants, bees, beetles, butterflies, crickets, fleas, flies, moths
• Are not always considered pests
− insect pollinators are essential to plant growth and reproduction
− other insects serve as predators and help control harmful insects
• Can be classified into two categories:
− sucking (ex: Aphids)
− chewing (ex: Caterpillars)
```
104
External Structure of Insects
• Consists of the head, throax and abdomen
− the head includes eyes, antennae and mouthparts
− the thorax includes legs and wings
− the adult abdomen has no legs or wings
105
Complete Metamorphosis
```
• Consists of four stages:
− egg
• female lays egg
− larva
• worm-shaped
• eating and growing stage
− pupa
• develops into adult while in a cacoon
• grows wings and legs
− adult
• breaks out of cocoon
• has identifiable insect features
```
106
Incomplete Metamorphosis
```
• Consists of three stages:
− egg
• female lays hundreds of eggs
• eggs are white or yellow
• eggs hatch within 20 days
− nymph
• is the growing stage
• looks similar to adult insects
− adult
• has developed all identifiable insect features
• adults mate, females lay eggs, and the entire process
repeats
```
107
Aphid
```
• Characteristics:
− green, yellow, red, pink or black in color
− young have wings, mature are wingless
− produce toxic saliva
• referred to as honeydew
− presence can go unnoticed
− feed primarily on garden plants
• Effects on plants:
− distorts leaves
• curling
• discoloration
• leaves may fall off
− stunts plant growth
− may cause death
```
108
Lace Bug
• Characteristics:
− adult is approximately 1/8th inch long
− light-colored body
− clear wings
• Effects on plants:
− yellow and brown spots on top of leaves
− severely injured leaves drop from plant
• Prevention methods:
− allow natural predators, such as ladybirds and green lacewings, to
provide control
− plant resistant varieties
109
Mealybug
```
• Characteristics:
− less than a quarter inch length
− white body with long, white “tall” filaments
− males have wings
− appear in greenhouse and nursery crops
• Effects on plants:
− wilts plants by extracting sap
− discolors leaves
− causes leaves to drop prematurely
− stunts plant growth
− can result in death
```
110
Whitefly
```
• Characteristics:
− very small
− pale-yellow body with white wings
− usually in groups
− prefer the underside of leaves
• Effects on plants:
− feeds on plant phloem
− turns leaves yellow
• particularly cotton, poinsettia and vegetable plant leaves
```
111
Nematodes
• Are very small roundworm
− may be parasitic or beneficial
• Are important decomposers in soil
• Damage vascular tissue of plants, preventing nutrient dissemination
• Create wounds, causing susceptibility to other diseases
• Note: foliar nematodes eat holes through leaves of plants
112
Pest Control
```
• Is based on effectiveness and risk
• Include:
− highly selective chemicals
− targeted spraying
− broadcast spraying
• Note: Integrated pest management is an effective and environmentally
sensitive approach to pest management which relies on a combination
of common sense practices
```
113
Techniques of Pest Control
• Biological controls
− pest control which is non-toxic to plants, humans and
wildlife
• examples: mulches, crop rotation, planting density, proper irrigation
− use beneficial insects to control pests
• example: introducing ladybugs to control aphid populations
• Cultural controls
− simple to use and inexpensive
• examples: mulches, crop rotation, planting density
• Mechanical controls
− use physical methods, such as insect and animal traps, to reduce weeds and control pests by spreading less seeds
− are less effective and impractical on a large scale
• Chemical controls
− use biological, natural and synthetic pesticides to control pests
− can be harmful to environment if not applied correctly
• pyrethyroid is least toxic to the environment
• Host-plant resistance
− use plant varieties resistant to attack of pests and diseases
• plant breeders breed plants for certain traits making the plant resistant
• regulatory controls
− contain and eliminate pests already established in limited areas
− prevent introduction of pests from foreign countries
− restrict entry of any infested goods
114
Pesticides
```
• Reduce, prevent, repel or eliminate pests
• Control pests in landscapes, gardens, field crops and homes
• Protect plants, animals and humans
• Are classified by type:
− algaecides
• control algae
− anti-microbial
• control bacteria and microorganisms
− avicides
• control birds
− fungicides
• kill fungi
− herbicides
• kill weeds
• Are classified by type:
− insecticides
• kill insects and other arthropods
− insecticides
• kill snails and slugs
− nematacides
• kill nematodes
− repellents
• repel pests including insects and birds
− rodenticides
• control rodents
```
115
Vertebrates
• Are distinguished by the possession of a backbone or spinal
column
116
Deer
```
• Eat and damage a variety of plants including:
− garden vegetables
− grasses
− forbs
− fruits
− shrubs
− trees
• trample trees and shrubs
• Rub antlers against trees
```
117
Raccoons
• Feed on fruits, berries, nuts, corn and other grains
118
Squirrels
• Cause damage by feeding on seedlings of vegetable plants in
gardens
• Damage fruit trees by feeding on fruits and nuts
• gnaw on the bark of trees and shrubs
119
Weeds
```
• Compete with desirable plants for nutrients, water, sunlight and spacing
• Without adequate water will wilt, droop or shrivel
• Have one of three life cycles:
− annual
− perennial
− biennial
• Can be beneficial:
− soil stabilization
− habitat and feed for wildlife
− addition of organic matter
```
120
Annual Weeds
```
• Complete a full life cycle, from germination to seed production, within
one year
• Include:
− crabgrass
− annual bluegrass
− chickweed
− pigweed
```
121
Biennial Weeds
• Have a typical life span of 2 years
• Produce only roots, stems and leaves the first year
• Flower and produce seeds in the second year
• Include:
− common burdock
− Queen Anne’s lace
− bull thistle
122
Perennial Weeds
```
• Will live for several years and flower more than once
• Produce seeds annually
• Usually have deep root systems
• Examples include:
− dandelions
− white clover
− Bermuda grass
− stinging nettle
```
123
Bull Thistle
```
• Scientific Name: cirsium vulgare
• Characteristics:
− widespread biennial
− can grow two to six feet tall
− pink colored flower on top of stems
− grows in sunny, open areas
− long, sharp spines on leaves
− reproduces only by seed
− taproot system
```
124
Chickweed
```
• Scientific Name: stellaria media
• Characteristics:
− winter annual
− white flowers
− edible
− leaves and stems are hairy and give a sticky feeling
− similar to sticky chickweed
− grows upright
```
125
Common Sunflower
• Scientific Name: helianthus annus
• Characteristics:
− summer annual
− can grow one and one-half to eight feet in height
− coarse/hairy leaves and stems
− heads can reach five inches across
− flowers are yellow and brown or maroon in center
− heads of flowers follow the sun each day
126
Crabgrass
• Scientific Name: digitaria spp
• Characteristics:
− annual
− found in all areas
− smooth crabgrass is low growing
− reaches approximately six inches tall
− leaves grow up to five inches in length
− spread by seeds through factors, such as wind and water
− range from one-half to two and one-half inches depending on type
of grass
127
Horsenettle
```
• Scientific Name: solarum carolinense
• Characteristics:
− perennial
− stems may grow three feet in height
− poisonous to livestock
• even when consumed in hay
− deep spreading root system
− leaves contain prominent thorns
− produces a green berry which turns yellow and wrinkles with age
```
128
Pigweed
• Scientific Name: amaranthus
• Characteristics:
− summer annual
− grows erect and can reach six and one-half feet in height
− stems are often red in color especially at base
− leaves are about one-half an inch in length
− small, green flowers are densely packed at top of stems
129
Herbicides
• Chemicals which kill plants or inhibit their normal growth
• Most effective when good cultural practices are in place
• If improperly applied can become hazardous to plants
• Combinations vary with use and environmental factors:
− agronomic
− ecological
− economic
• Contact herbicides:
− effective against annual weeds
− only kills plant parts which chemical comes into contact
• systemic herbicides:
− effective against annual and perennial weeds absorbed by root or
foliar parts of plants
• postmergent herbicides:
− affect a plant which is actively growing
130
The United States
• Has 2.2 million farms and less than five percent are managed by nonfamily owned corporations
• Will have to double agriculture output by 2050 to meet global
food demand
• Produces more corn than any other country
131
Seasonal Crops
```
• Include:
− warm season
• corn
• tomatoes
• watermelons
• Warm Season Crops: crops harmed by frost and which grow best at
temperatures above 70 F (21°C)
3. Seasonal Crops
• Include:
− cool season
• onions
• potatoes
• wheat
• Cool Season Crops: crops which grow best at temperatures between
60 F to 65°F (15°C to 18°C)
```
132
Grains
```
• Include:
− warm season
• corn
• sorghum
− cool season
• barley
• cereal rye
• oats
• ryegrass
• triticale
• wheat
```
133
Vegetables
```
• Include:
− warm season
• eggplant
• peppers
• sweet potatoes
• pumpkins
• tomatoes
− cool season
• asparagus
• broccoli
• cabbage
• carrots
• cauliflower
• celery
• lettuce
• onions
• potatoes
```
134
Fruit Crops
```
• Include:
− apples
− blackberries
− blueberries
− cherries
− cranberries
− olives
− peaches
− pomegranates
− raspberries
− strawberries
```
135
Oilseed & Special Purpose Crops
```
• Include:
− canola
− corn
− flaxseed
− soybeans
− sunflower seeds
```
136
Forage Crops
```
• Include:
− alfalfa
− hay
− prairie grass
− red clover
− ryegrass
− sorghum
```
137
Field Crops
```
• Include:
− barley
− cottonseed
− hay
− oats
− tobacco
− wheat
• Field Crop: crops other than fresh fruits or vegetables grown for
agricultural purposes
```
138
Nut Crops
```
• Include:
− almonds
− chestnuts
− hazelnuts
− macadamia
− peanuts
− pecans
− pine nuts
− pistachios
```
139
Fiber Crops
```
• Are grown for their fiber to make paper, cloth or rope
• Include:
− bamboo
− cotton
− flax
```
140
Row Crops
```
• Include:
− beans
− blueberries
− corn
− cotton
− flax
− peanuts
− potatoes
− pumpkins
− sorghum
− soybeans
− sunflowers
− watermelons
− wheat
```
141
Sugar Crops
```
• Include:
− maple syrup
− sugar beets
− sugar cane
− tropical maize
```
142
Fertilizers
• Are a source of plant nutrients used to supply one or more of the
essential nutrient elements to the plant
• Are labeled with 3 numbers, showing the percentage by
weight of available nitrogen, phosphate and potash which is defined as
the fertilizer analysis or grade
• macronut: required in a relatively large proportion for growth and
development of plants
• Micronutrients: required in smaller amounts
143
Fertilizer Analysis
• Is located on the label of the fertilizer bag and is usually expressed as NP-K
− example: 8-0-28 = 8 percent nitrogen; 0 percent
Phosphate; 28 percent Potassium
• in a 100 pound bag = 8 lb. Nitrogen; 0 lb. phosphate;
28 lb. Potassium
• in a 50 pound bag = 4 lb. Nitrogen; 0 lb. Phosphate; 14 lb.
Potassium
144
Water
• Has the following chemical properties:
− cohesion
• allows water to stick to water
− adhesion
• allows water to stick to other materials
− surface tension
• allows water to assume the shape having the least
surface area
• Capillary action: allows water to move within the space of a porous
material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion and surface tension
145
Watersheds in the United States
• Are found on every acre of land
• Can be virtually any shape or size
• Join to form larger watersheds which drain into even larger bodies of
water
• Occur mainly on two types of terrain
− steep terrain
• water drains into fast-moving streams and swift rivers
− flat terrain
• water drains into ponds, lakes, creeks and swamps
• Watershed: area of land between two high points, where all water drains
to a common area below
146
Watershed: Water Sources
• Occur in two main forms
− groundwater water
− surface water
147
Ground Water
• Is contained in a subterranian area of saturated soil and rock called
an aquifer
− water flowing naturally from the earth due to an overflowing aquifer
is a spring
• Is prevented from seeping deeper underground by a layer of
impermeable rock
• infriltration: water seeping into the ground surface
148
Surface Water
• Includes all areas of visible water on the landscape
• Is found in water features such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams and
wetlands
• Can serve as both a recharge source or a discharge area for ground
water
• reservoir: a lake created by placing a dam on a river
149
Surface Water Measurement
* The rainfall volume of a watershed is calculated in acre inches
* Rainfall volume equals: acres in a watershed X inches of rain
150
Acre Feet
• Is used to calculate the volume of surface water bodies such as
reservoirs and lakes
− to calculate acre feet you will need some information on the water
body which includes:
• surface area
− calculated by multiplying length times width
• average depth
− calculated by averaging multiple depth measurements
151
Groundwater Measurement
```
• Can be difficult due to a number of factors including:
− hydrogeological
• ground water features
− hydrological
• climate water features
− climatological
• earth’s climate features
```
152
Watersheds
• Are negatively impacted by many factors including:
− floods
• transport non-point source pollutant
− droughts
• increase the demand on existing water resources
− irrigation
• can have multiple impacts on ground water including:
− receding land
− increasing aquifer salinity
− accelerated ground water pollution
153
Water & Watershed Conservation
* Is fundamental to ensuring the future availability of water
* Can be practiced by everyone
* Can save thousands of gallons of water each year
154
Indoor Water Conservation
```
• Can be accomplished in a variety of ways including:
− fixing household leaks
− taking a shower instead of a bath
− wash only full loads of laundry
− reusing clean household water
− defrosting food in the refrigerator
```
155
Outdoor Water Conservation
• Can be accomplished in a variety of ways including:
− turning off irrigation during a drought
− install a rain shut-off device to your irrigation system
− following local water use restrictions
− applying thick layers of mulch to decrease water evaporation from
the soil
− incorporating drought tolerant plants into your landscape
156
Watershed Conservation
• Can be accomplished in a variety of ways including:
− maintaining proper levels of vegetation and ground cover
− monitoring livestock grazing intensity
− controlling water runoff and preventing soil erosion
− proper application and disposal of chemicals and fertilizers
