REVIEWER

Question 1

Is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas, primarily from
the Earth’s surface like oceans and moist soil

Answer 1

EVAPORATION

Question 2

Factors Affecting the Rate of Evaporation

Answer 2

TEMPERATURE
SURFACE AREA
HUMIDITY
STRENGTH OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
RADIATION
WIND VELOCITY

Question 3

is the plant-driven process of releasing water vapor into the atmosphere through pores on leaves, collectively playing vital roles in the water cycle by redistributing water, regulating climate patterns, and contributing to cloud formation and precipitation

Answer 3

TRANSPIRATION

Question 5

Higher temperature increases the average kinetic energy of molecules, facilitating more frequent collisions with sufficient energy to escape into the vapor phase.

Answer 5

TEMPERATURE

Question 6

The larger the exposed surface area of the liquid the greater is the number of molecules escaping from its surface. Evaporation is directly proportional to the area
exposed. Larger surface area allows more molecules to escape simultaneously, accelerating the evaporation rate.

Answer 6

SURFACE AREA

Question 7

Dry air can hold more water vapor, creating a steeper concentration gradient that enhances evaporation compared to humid conditions.

Answer 7

HUMIDITY

Question 8

The ease of evaporation of a liquid is determined by the strength of the attractive forces between its molecules. In polar liquids, cohesive forces are strong, whereas in non polar liquids, cohesive forces are weak, allowing molecules to escape easily.

Answer 8

Strength of Intermolecular Forces

Question 9

If atmospheric pressure is increased then due to external pressure molecules on the surface will not move to the atmosphere so if atmospheric pressure increases, rate of evaporation decreases

Answer 9

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Question 10

Solar radiation and temperature are the thermal (radiation and sensible heat energy)
sources that cause water to evaporate from the earth’s surface. The amount of heat energy needed to cause water to pass from a liquid to a gaseous state is called the latent heat of vaporization.

Answer 10

RADIATION

Question 11

Increasing the wind speed increases the first stage evaporation rate and decreases the transition time between two evaporative stages (soil water flow to vapor diffusion controlled) at low velocity values; then, at high wind speeds the evaporation rate becomes less dependent on the wind speed

Answer 11

Wind velocity

Question 12

As the pressure exerted increases, the intermolecular forces within the liquid weaken, making the liquid more volatile and lowering
its boiling point, thereby accelerating its evaporation rate. Vapor pressure serves as a measure of a liquid’s propensity to evaporate.

Answer 12

VAPOR PRESSURE

Question 13

Measurement of Evaporation

Answer 13

EVAPORIMETER
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
ANALYTICAL METHODS

Question 13

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Vapor Pressure

Answer 13

Nature of Liquid
Temperature of the liquid
Presence of Impurities

Question 13

Types of Evaporimeter

Answer 13

USWB Class A Pan
ISI Standard Pan
Colorado Sunken Pan

Question 13

These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by evaporation from these pans is measured at regular intervals (daily).

it also allows to measure with high accuracy and reliability the amount of water evaporated in a given time interval. It is specially designed to meet the guidelines established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

Answer 13

EVAPORIMETER

Question 14

A modified form of Class A pan
- A pan of diameter 1220 mm and depth 255 mm
- The pan is made of a copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside
- The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225 mm and height 100 mm above ground
level to allow free air circulation below the pan.
- A fixed-point gauge indicates the level of water.

Answer 14

ISI (Indian Standards Institution) Standard Pan

Question 14

A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255 mm
- Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm
- The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet
- The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15 cm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan
-Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with a hook gauge

Answer 14

USWB (United States Weather Bureau) Class A Evaporation Pan

Question 15

920 mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460 mm deep, and buried into the ground within 100mm of the top.
- Main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are like that of a lake.
- Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust etc.

Answer 15

Colorado Sunken Pan

Question 16

DRAWBACKS OF EVAPORATION PANS

Answer 16

Evaporation pans are sensitive to various environmental factors such as wind speed, temperature, humidity, and solar radiation

Evaporation pans require regular maintenance to ensure accurate measurements. Factors such as debris accumulation, algal growth, and sedimentation can interfere with the pan’s surface, affecting evaporation rates

Evaporation pans may not capture the spatial variability of evaporation within a specific area
accurately

Question 17

Environmental Impact under transpiration

Answer 17

● Deforestation
● Urbanization
● Climate change

Question 18

Human Impact

Answer 18

Water extraction
Pollution
Infrastructure Development

Question 19

5 Classifications of Transpiration

Answer 19

Stomatal Transpiration
Cuticular Transpiration
Lenticular Transpiration
Hydraulic Lift Transpiration
Guttation

Question 20

This type of transpiration occurs through the stomata, which are small pores primarily located on the underside of leaves.

Answer 20

Stomatal Transpiration

Question 21

The evaporation of water from a plant’s cuticle. The cuticle is a waxy film that covers the surface of a plant’s leaves

Answer 21

Cuticular Transpiration

Question 22

The evaporation of water from the lenticels of a plant.

Answer 22

Lenticular Transpiration

Question 23

The transfer of water via roots from the moist and deeper soil layers to relatively drier upper soil layers

Answer 23

Hydraulic Lift Transpiration

Question 24

A process by which water is exuded from the tips or edges of leaves, typically in the form of droplets

Answer 24

Guttation

Question 25

- is the combination of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from vegetation.

Answer 25

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Question 26

Stages of Crop Growths Under Evapotranspiration:

Answer 26

1. Initial Stage 2. Development Stage 3. Mid Season Stage 4. Late Season Stage

Question 27

Crop Growths less than 10% ground cover

Answer 27

Initial Stage

Question 28

from initial stage to attainment of effective full ground cover (70%-80%)

Answer 28

Development Stage

Question 29

from full ground cover to maturation

Answer 29

Mid Season Stage

Question 30

- full maturity and harvest

Answer 30

Late Season Stage

Question 31

is the total water lost from a cropped (or irrigated) land due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the plants or used by the plants in building up of plant tissue.

Answer 31

Evapotranspiration (Et) or Consumptive Use (U)

Question 32

is the evapotranspiration from the short green vegetation when the roots are supplied with unlimited water covering the soil. It is usually expressed as a depth (cm, mm) over the area

Answer 32

Potential Evapotranspiration (Ept)

Question 33

Estimation of Evapotranspiration:

Answer 33

1. Tanks and Lysimeter Experiments 2. Field Experimental Plots 3. Installation of Sunken (Colarado) Tanks 4. Evapotranspiration Equations 5. Evaporation Index Method

Question 34

- It involves the growing of crops in large containers (lysimeters) installed in cropped fields and measuring their water loss and gains.

Answer 34

Tanks and Lysimeter Experiments

Question 35

Measurements of water supplied to the field and changes in soil moisture contents of field plots are sometimes more dependable for computing seasonal water requirement of crops than measurements with small tanks or lysimeters not free from limitations.

Answer 35

Field Experimental Plots

Question 36

- An evaporation pan is used to hold water during observations for the determination of the quantity of evaporation at a given location

Answer 36

Installation of Sunken (Colarado) Tanks

Question 37

Blaney-Criddle method. This method is used throughout the world for the consumptive use determinations.

Answer 37

Evapotranspiration Equations

Question 38

U = Σ𝑘𝑡𝑝/ 100 ; U= Σ𝑘𝑝 ( 4.6𝑡 + 81.3)/ 100 U = Σkf = KΣf = KF f =𝑡𝑝/100 ; f = 𝑝 ( 4.6𝑡 + 81.3)/100

Answer 38

Evapotranspiration Equations

Question 39

from pan evaporation data as developed by Hargreaves and Christiansen. Analysis of data on consumptive use indicates a high degree of correlation between pan evaporation values and consumptive use. The relationship between the evapotranspiration (Et ) and pan evaporation (Ep) is usually expressed as

Answer 39

Evaporation Index Method

Question 40

Et = kEp

Answer 40

Evaporation Index Method

Question 41

Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration

Answer 41

(i) Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind speed, mean monthly temperature and humidity. (ii) Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing season. (iii) The moisture level in the soil.

Question 42

The Meyer equation, developed from Dalton’s law, is one of many evaporation formulas and is popular for making evaporation-rate calculations

Answer 42

Meyer equation

Question 43

Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect

Answer 43

3 Rohwer’s Equation

Question 44

EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT METHODS

Answer 44

DIRECT METHODS INDIRECT METHODS

Question 45

o In the _____________method, evaporation is measured using techniques such as water budget, Lysimeter, and Pan Evaporation.

Answer 45

DIRECT METHODS

Question 46

A_______________ for a stormwater treatment practice involves tracking the amount of water that enters, exits, and is stored by the practice. This is done by assigning discharge values to each process that affects the fate of water, including input processes such as direct precipitation, surface runoff, and conduit or open channel flow, and output processes such as infiltration, evapotranspiration, and conduit or open channel flow

Answer 46

WATER BUDGET

Question 47

use either weighing or non-weighing configurations. Non weighing _____________ indirectly determine evaporation rates via volume balance, whereas weighing-based systems directly measure the amount of water loss or gain per unit time.

Answer 47

. LYSIMETER

Question 48

An evaporation pan is a container that is used to measure the amount of evaporation at a specific location. These pans come in various sizes and shapes, with circular or square pans being the most common. The most well-known types of evaporation pans are the "Class A" pan, ISI Standard Pan, Sunken Colorado Pan, US Geological Survey Floating Pan and Atmometer

Answer 48

PAN EVAPORATION

Question 49

It is a Standard Pan of 1210mm diameter and 255mm depth used by the US Weather Bureau and is Known as Class A Land Pan · The Depth of water is maintained between 180mm and 200mm. The pan is normally made up of unpainted galvanized iron sheets. · Monel Metal is used where corrosion is a problem · The pan is placed on a wooden platform of 150mm height above the ground to allow free circulation of air below the pan. · Evaporation measurements are made by measuring the depth of water with a hook gauge in stilling-well

Answer 49

Class A Evaporation Pan

Question 50

This Pan evaporimeter specified by Indian Standard: 5973-1970, also known as MODIFIED CLASS A PAN. · Pan of 1220mm in diameter with 255mm depth. · Pan composed of a copper sheet of 0.9mm thickness, tinned inside and painted white outside. · The pan is placed on the square wooded platform with1225mm height and 100mm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan · A fixed-point gauge indicates the level of water.

Answer 50

ISI Standard Pan

Question 51

This pan, has 920mm square side and 460mm depth · unpainted galvanized iron sheets and buried into the ground with 50mm of the top. · The main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to those of a lake · however, it has disadvantages also: · Difficult to detect leak

Answer 51

Colorado Sunken Pan

Question 52

A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm depth · It is supported by drum floats in the middle of the raft size 4250mm x 4870mm. · It is set to float in a lake to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water. · The water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of 75mm.

Answer 52

. US Geological Survey Floating Pan

Question 53

Basically, consists of a wet, porous ceramic cup mounted on the top a cylindrical water reservoir.

Answer 53

Atmometer

Question 54

consists of a 50mm diameter spherical surface of 2.5mm thick porous materials; the bottle is filled with distilled water that is supplied continuously to the porous bulb; the loss of water from the bottle is due to the evaporation.

Answer 54

LIVINGSTONE ATMOMETER

Question 55

consists of a graduated glass tube of 15mm in diameter and 300mm in length; filled with water and covered with filter paper; the tube is kept in an inverted position so that there is a continuous supply of water to the filter paper; The loss of water from glass tube is due to evaporation

Answer 55

PICHE ATMOMETER

Question 56

The aerodynamic method refers to a technique used to measure evaporation rates by considering the aerodynamic properties of the surrounding environment. Unlike traditional methods such as the use of evaporation pans, which rely solely on direct measurement of water loss, the aerodynamic method takes into account the influence of airflow, temperature, humidity, and other meteorological factors on evaporation.

Answer 56

AERODYNAMIC METHOD

Question 57

The _________________-method is a technique used to estimate evaporation rates by analyzing the energy exchange between the surface of interest (such as a water body or soil) and its surroundings. It considers the balance of energy fluxes, including incoming solar radiation, outgoing longwave radiation, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux (which represents evaporation). By quantifying these energy exchanges, the energy budget method provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing evaporation.

Answer 57

ENERGY BUDGET METHOD

Question 58

DATA ANALYSIS OF EVAPORATION ______________ data such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation are crucial for understanding the environmental conditions that drive evaporation. Analyzing these data over time helps identify trends and patterns in evaporation rates.

Answer 58

Meteorological Data

Question 59

*DATA ANALYSIS OF EVAPORATION Calculating and analyzing _________________over different periods provides insights into the overall dynamics of evaporation. This can involve comparing evaporation rates between different locations, seasons, or under different weather conditions

Answer 59

Evaporation Rates

Question 60

DATA ANALYSIS OF EVAPORATION Understanding the___________________involved in evaporation, such as net radiation, soil heat flux, and latent heat flux, is essential for comprehensive data analysis. Analyzing these components helps in assessing the relative contributions of various factors to evaporation

Answer 60

Energy Balance Components

Question 61

Comparing observed evaporation data with predictions from evaporation models allows for model validation and improvement. Analyzing discrepancies between observed and modeled evaporation can help identify areas for refinement in modeling approaches

Answer 61

Evaporation Models

Question 62

Analyzing spatial and temporal variability in evaporation data provides insights into the heterogeneity of evaporation processes across different locations and time scales. This can involve spatial interpolation techniques and temporal trend analysis methods.

Answer 62

. Spatial and Temporal Variability

Question 63

Examining long-term trends and variability in evaporation data can reveal changes in evaporation patterns over time, which may be influenced by factors such as climate change, land use changes, and anthropogenic activities.

Answer 63

. Long-term Trends and Variability

Question 64

Conducting uncertainty analysis helps quantify the uncertainty associated with evaporation measurements and estimates. This involves assessing the reliability of data sources, instrumentation errors, and uncertainties in modeling approaches.

Answer 64

Uncertainty Analysis

Question 65

Exploring correlations between evaporation and other environmental variables, such as precipitation, soil moisture, and vegetation cover, provides insights into the complex interactions driving evaporation processes.

Answer 65

Correlation Analysis

Question 66

Analyzing extreme events, such as droughts or heatwaves, and their impacts on evaporation can help understand the resilience of ecosystems and water resources to extreme climatic conditions.

Answer 66

Extreme Events

Question 67

Integrating evaporation data into hydrological models allows for more comprehensive water balance assessments and predictions. Analyzing the interactions between evaporation and other hydrological processes improves the understanding of water cycle dynamics

Answer 67

Integration with Hydrological Models

Question 68

Transpiration Measurement Methods

Answer 68

Direct Methods Indirect Methods

Question 69

can be used to measure the rate of transpiration that’s proportional to water uptake.

Answer 69

Potometer

Question 70

Determines water loss by measuring the weight change of a plant or soil

Answer 70

Gravimetric Method

Question 71

Calculates the amount of heat energy necessary for water evaporation.

Answer 71

Heat Balance Method

Question 72

used to determine photosynthetic and respiratory pathways, monitor plant stress, identify the sources of water and nitrogen used by plants, estimate water and nitrogen use efficiencies and reconstruct past climates from plant tissues

Answer 72

Stable Isotope Techniques

Question 73

Measures water movement in xylem channels as an indicator of transpiration

Answer 73

Sap Flow Methods

Question 74

Determines transpiration rate by measuring leaf conductivity.

Answer 74

Leaf Porometer

Question 75

This involves analyzing evaporation data over time to identify seasonal variations, trends, and long-term patterns. Temporal analysis may reveal seasonal differences in evaporation rates due to changes in temperature, humidity, and solar radiation.

Answer 75

Temporal Analysis

Question 76

Spatial analysis involves examining evaporation data across different locations to identify spatial variations and gradients. This analysis may reveal differences in evaporation rates due to variations in environmental factors such as altitude, latitude, land cover, and proximity to water bodies.

Answer 76

Spatial Analysis

Question 77

examines the relationship between evaporation rates and other environmental variables such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and soil moisture. Identifying correlations can help understand the factors driving evaporation and improve predictive models.

Answer 77

Correlation Analysis

Question 78

can be used to develop empirical relationships between evaporation rates and influencing factors. Regression models may include multiple variables to account for the combined effect of various environmental factors on evaporation

Answer 78

Regression Analysis:

Question 79

Anomaly detection techniques can be applied to identify unusual or extreme events in evaporation data, such as sudden spikes or drops in evaporation rates. Anomalies may be indicative of unusual weather conditions or measurement errors that need to be investigated further.

Answer 79

Anomaly Detection

Question 80

involves comparing evaporation data from different sources, measurement methods, or time periods to assess consistency and identify discrepancies. This analysis helps ensure data quality and reliability

Answer 80

Comparative Analysis:

Question 81

assesses the reliability and confidence intervals associated with evaporation measurements and predictions. It involves quantifying uncertainties arising from measurement errors, model assumptions, and variability in environmental conditions.

Answer 81

Uncertainty Analysis

Question 82

A method used to directly measure water movement in the soil. It involves using specialized containers

Answer 82

lysimeters

Question 83

These lysimeters are equipped with load cells or other weighing devices to measure changes in mass over time.

Answer 83

Weighing Lysimeter

Question 84

Tensiometers are instruments that measure the tension or suction of soil water.

Answer 84

Tensiometer Lysimeter

Question 85

involves conducting scientific research or experimentation directly within a designated area of a field or outdoor environment. These studies are commonly used in agricultural research, ecology, environmental science, and other disciplines where natural conditions play a significant role

Answer 85

Field Experimental Plot Study

Question 86

are essential for understanding how water availability affects plant growth, crop yield, and overall ecosystem health.

Answer 86

Soil Moisture Depletion Studies

Question 87

e hydrological techniques used to assess the distribution and movement of water within a given system over a specified period. These methods are commonly employed in hydrology, agriculture, ecology, and water resources management to understand the availability and utilization of water in a particular area.

Answer 87

Water Balance Methods