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1
Q

What are the THREE roles of knowledge in the economy?

A
  1. Offers sustainable advantage as product and services are more difficult to maintain
  2. Organisation’s gain the greatest value when they and their employees have intagible intelligence on top of their products and services
  3. Allows organisations’ to do things well and quickly - maintaining their success
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2
Q

Can you describe what Knowledge Management is?

A

Knowledge Management is about using a set of processes associated with understanding knowledge and using it as a business and organisational asset.

Information technology acts as the enabler, for organisation’s to manage knowledge physically.
Using that IT to manage that knowledge will allow or aid in an organisation meeting certain business objectives, under the constraints of the environments in which the organisation operates within and interacts with.

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3
Q

What are the FIVE key drivers of Knowledge Management?

A
  1. Increasing domain complexity
  2. Accelerating market volatility
  3. Intensified speed of responsiveness
  4. Diminishing individual experience
  5. Knowledge loss through staff turnover and downsizing
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4
Q

What is Data?

A

Data are values of qualitative and quantitative variables belonging to a set of items. They are often discrete facts or events, they are completely objective and have no interpretation, and ultimately essential for deriving and driving information and knowledge.

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5
Q

What is Information?

A

Information in its most restricted technical sense is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message.

When data is interpreted and the meaning is determined it turns into information.

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6
Q

What are the FIVE activities that can be conducted to transform Data into Information?

A
  1. Categorisation
  2. Calculation
  3. Correction
  4. Condensation
  5. Contextualisation
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7
Q

What is the hierarchical and boundary view of Knowledge?

A

The hierarchical and boundary view of knowledge is presented in a pyramid, with Data at the base, Information in the middle and Knowledge at the tip. (https://gyazo.com/dd6a3697969ca4eefc2a7f71aee6e351 )

It is the idea that knowledge exists as an entity but for some reason is more valuable than information and data, as well as that the three entities are not intechangeable or messy but easy to define and separate, with clear boundaries.

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8
Q

What is the continuous stream of information and data view of Knowledge?

A

The continuous stream of information and data view of knowledge is represented by a continuous stream of data and information entering an organisation, with knowledge being a supplement to the two elements, adding increased value for the business.

In particular, the knowledge is manifested in actions taken by the organisation when utilising that data and information.

https://gyazo.com/3d71d4c653f08ac9f945dbe053be86a6

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9
Q

Where are the FIVE places that knowledge is formed?

A
  1. Experience - deep knowledge of a subject developed over time
  2. Ground Truth - tested experiences
  3. Complexity - ability to deal with complex situations
  4. Judgement - ability to refine itself in response to new situations and information
  5. Intuition - exercising heuristics (self-learning)
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10
Q

What are the points in regards to Rumsfeld organisational knowledge?

A
  • There are things we know, we know
  • There are things we know, we don’t know
  • There are things we don’t know, we know
  • There are things we don’t know, we don’t know
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11
Q

What is Tacit knowledge?

A

Tacit knowledge is knowledge which is difficult to transfer to another by means of writing or verbalising it. It is based on intuition and know-how.

Tacit knowledge is rooted in context, experience, practice and values and is often transferred through socialisation and mentoring etc.

Example: knowing when to pull out into traffic

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12
Q

What is Explicit knowledge?

A

Explicit knowledge is knowledge which can really be articulated, codified, accessed and verbalised, making it easy to transmit.

This is a codified knowledge which can be found in documents, databases etc.

Example: the highway code and turn by turn directions

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13
Q

What is learning?

A

An entity learns if through its processing of information, a range of potential behaviour changed. All entities learn differently.

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14
Q

What are the two types of learning?

A
  1. Single-Loop Learning

2. Double-Loop Learning

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15
Q

What is Single-Loop Learning?

A

Single-Loop learning is a form of operational level learning, it focuses on reviewing expected and desired outcomes of actions with the actual results. And, in the event that the expected results and actual results do not match, based on feedback, then the organisation reviews the actions they are taking, in an attempt to change or tweak them to achieve those desired results.

Single-Loop learning is often efficiency driven, around explicit knowledge and technology.

This form of learning addresses the symptoms of the actions, then root causes.

It asks the question - are we doing things right?

Example: Thermostat - too hot (turn off), too cold (turn on)

https://gyazo.com/051a7b6d9416f242a225be3a544702f1

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16
Q

What is Double-Loop Learning?

A

Double-Loop learning is a form of tactical level learning, it questions and focuses on our assumptions when we are not achieving the results we expect, based on continuous feedback, and can foster organisational learning, in terms of through questioning assumptions large-scale organisational changes can take place.

We question organisational norms, practices and policies, as well as ways of working, specifically we ask - what is going on here? what are the patterns? Are we doing the right things?

Example: Changing project management methodology from Waterfall to Agile.

https://gyazo.com/1a0c661f433e06b807aded2a88948e15

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17
Q

What is the Knowledge Management life cycle?

A

The Knowledge Management life cycle is an activity-oriented view of Knowledge Management which provides activities and tasks within a continuous cycle to complete in order to manage knowledge effectively - provides a form of structure.

It is important to understand it is not a finite set of steps.

The four phases of the Knowledge Management cycle are:

  1. Generating Knowledge
  2. Codifying Knowledge
  3. Transferring Knowledge
  4. Leveraging Knowledge

https://gyazo.com/24e1d56357ba7b66691679c795e3655b

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18
Q

What are the FOUR challenges faced in Knowledge Management?

A
  1. Information overload
  2. Lack of time for sharing knowledge
  3. Inability to use knowledge efficiently
  4. Human failure - insufficient communication and lack of training
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19
Q

What is Knowledge Generation?

A

Generating Knowledge in the Knowledge Management Lifecycle involves an organisation taking the necessary actions and steps to create, produce and gain knowledge within their organisation for future use in productive ways.

Knowledge is continuously and naturally generated as employees, and the organisation’s themselves absorb information in their environment and then acting on it.

The act of precisely intending to generate knowledge is the least systemic phase in the Knowledge Management lifecycle.

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20
Q

What are the SIX ways in which an organisation can generate knowledge?

A
  1. Acquisitions
  2. Rentals
  3. Research and Development
  4. Fusion
  5. Networking
  6. Adaptation
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21
Q

Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Acquisition?

A

Acquisition in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation buying or purchasing another organisation for the knowledge that they possess - the knowledge may not have to be innovative and newly created but must be new to the organisation which is initiating the purchase.

Example 1: Facebook buying Instagram
Example 2: Amazon buying Wholefoods

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22
Q

What are the THREE difficulties which can occur when an organisation attempts to purchase knowledge via Acquisition?

A
  1. Measuring the value of the purchased knowledge
  2. Recognising where the knowledge resides - people could walk out the door
  3. Adaptability to a new environment - new knowledge may not adapt and be useful in a new environment
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23
Q

Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Rental?

A

Rental in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation paying a fee to use and act on knowledge to achieve a form of success.

Example 1: Hiring a specialist consultant
Example 2: Partnerships - corporate incubators for startups

When organisations are renting this knowledge they need to absorb and retain as much of it as they possibly can, so they can continue to use that knowledge once they lose the rental source.

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24
Q

Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Research and Development?

A

Research and Development in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation setting up internal units whose sole purpose is to specifically generate knowledge.

Example 1: General Electric’s international research hubs
Example 2: Microsoft’s large research centres in Cambridge and Seattle

Important that results are still provided and value of research and development is measurable. Also, need to be careful about competitors gaining access to your ideas, duplicating it and making a possible advantage you had null.

Example: Apple stealing XEROX GUI

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25
Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Fusion?
Fusion in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation forming teams and getting people to come together from different backgrounds and perspectives to tackle a problem. These teams or groups need a foundation of common language and understanding of the problem at hand, as well as clear objectives, measurements of success and the relevant people. Any conflict or friction which surfaces should be utilised productively to produce light rather than heat. Example: General Electric workouts
26
Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Networking?
Networking in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation generating knowledge by through communities of knowers, which can be both formal and informal, as well as be a very natural platform for knowledge to be generated. Example 1: Programmers within a company Example 2: Local tradesmen
27
Can you describe the Knowledge Generation method of Adaptation?
Adaptation in regards to Knowledge Generation is the act of an organisation generating knowledge through reacting to external stimuli - competition, market environment, regulation etc. Organisation's need internal resources which can be adapted and re-used, as well as a culture of embracing change and absorption to succeed in adaptation. Example 1: Brexit and the status of businesses in the European Single Market
28
What is Knowledge Sharing and Transfer?
Knowledge Sharing and Transfer is a stage in the Knowledge Management Lifecycle which involves an organisation creating an environment and setting which fosters and enables the transmission and absorption of knowledge. It can be both structural, as well as natural and spontaneous.
29
What are the NINE possible barriers to Knowledge Sharing and Transfer?
1. Threatened by flexible working patterns 2. More shared knowledge is, less valuable it becomes 3. Informal sharing of knowledge may not be seen as real work 4. People not wanting to change 5. Lack of candidacy and honesty - people do not welcome new ideas and approaches 6. Trust - why change what works well? 7. Status - people judge the value of the knowledge being given based on who is providing it. 8. Transmission, Absorption and Use - need to promote and encourage all THREE 9. Measures - need to consider velocity, how fast knowledge is being shared and transferred, as well as viscosity, how much knowledge is being transferred.
30
What are the THREE factors in fostering a knowledge sharing and transfer culture?
1. Promote risk-taking - not punishing employees when things don't go to plan 2. Rewards for change - actively rewarding employees who embrace change and promote it 3. Openness - encourage employees to propose new ideas, criticise and refine processes and ways of doing activities through conversation
31
What action can be taken by an organisation to make it easy for explicit knowledge to be transferred and shared?
An organisation can make it easy for explicit knowledge to be shared and transferred by codifying and making it easily acceptable. Good examples include: - Best Practice Databases - Lesson Learnt Systems - Incident Report Systems
32
What action can be taken by an organisation to make it easy for tacit knowledge to be transferred and shared?
An organisation can make it easy for tacit knowledge to be shared and transferred by creating networking opportunities within the organisation.
33
Can you name the THREE networking opportunities an organisation can set-up?
1. Facilitate a place for networking to take place - common rooms, forums, subsidised canteens 2. Communities of Practice 3. Formal Groups - Committees to champion specific causes and find solutions (LGBTQ+), User groups to for projects
34
What are Communities of Practice (CoP)?
Communities of Practice (CoP) are groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems or a passion about a certain topic, and who deepen their knowledge and their expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis. Example: BCS - Chartered Institute of IT Artificial Intelligence Committee
35
What are the SIX benefits of Communities of Practice (CoP)?
1. Drive strategy 2. New lines of business 3. Solve problems quickly 4. Transfer best practice 5. Develop professional skills 6. Recruit and retain talent
36
What is Leveraging Knowledge?
Leveraging Knowledge is a stage in the Knowledge Management Lifecycle which involves an organisation using the knowledge which has been shared and transferred to gain a form of competitive advantage and maintain success.
37
Can you list the SEVEN knowledge management processes which can be used with software to enable the process of Leveraging Knowledge?
1. Externalisation 2. Internalisation 3. Routines 4. Direction 5. Exchange 6. Socialisation 7. Combination
38
Can you explain Externalisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Externalisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge focuses on transferring tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. Nonaka states you use figurative stories and metaphors to make an internal experience relative and descriptive to the person who is trying to learn that tacit knowledge
39
Can you explain Internalisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Internalisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge focuses on transferring explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. For example, learning a new skill or language and applying it / putting it into practice - University coursework.
40
Can you explain Routines in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Routines in regards to Leveraging Knowledge focuses on embedding knowledge in procedures. For example, pushing bugs through to resolution across several stages in a process
41
Can you explain Direction in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Direction in regards to Leveraging Knowledge focuses on knowers directing non-knowers without transferring their full knowledge. For example, a firefighter commando handling an emergency and life-threatening situation through strong leadership and direction.
42
Can you explain Exchange in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Exchange in regards to Leveraging Knowledge is the act of sharing explicit knowledge. For example, using Application Lifecycle Management tool to log defects and bugs, and explicitly share details on them i.e. date added, status etc.
43
Can you explain Socialisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Socialisation in regards to Leveraging Knowledge is the act of sharing and fusion of tacit knowledge. For example, Business Senior Management Teams using their intuition and judgement to prepare for Brexit scenarios in the United Kingdom
44
Can you explain Combination in regards to Leveraging Knowledge?
The process of Combination in regards to Leveraging Knowledge is the act of fusion of explicit knowledge. For example, a team building a report together, using their individual expertise to contribute to a report, making knowledge explicit.
45
What are the FOUR factors which can influence the knowledge management processes you choose?
1. Environmental characteristics 2. Organisational characteristics 3. Task characteristics 4. Knowledge characteristics
46
What knowledge management processes should be used if a task has a HIGH interdependence level, and LOW uncertainty level?
- Exchange - Combination - Routines
47
What knowledge management processes should be used if a task has a LOW interdependence level, and LOW uncertainty level?
- Internalisation - Externalisation - Routines
48
What knowledge management processes should be used if a task has a HIGH interdependence level, and HIGH uncertainty level?
- Direction | - Socialisation
49
What knowledge management processes should be used if a task has a LOW interdependence level, and HIGH uncertainty level?
- Direction
50
Can you discuss the key points when it comes to a Codification strategy in regards to Knowledge Management?
- Technology-led - Supports explicit knowledge - Repository oriented - Efficiency-driven - Stable market conditions - Single-loop learning
51
Can you discuss the key points when it comes to a Personalisation strategy in regards to Knowledge Management?
- People-led - Supports tacit knowledge - Dialog oriented - Innovation driven - Changing market conditions - Double-loop learning
52
What is Change Management?
Change management is the management of change and development within a business, which involves the controlled identification and implementation of required changes. Large-scale change can be triggered through double-loop learning or acquisitions.
53
What are the FOUR approaches which can be taken to support the adoption of change within an organisation:
1. Education and Persuasion 2. Participaton and Involvement 3. Negotiations and Agreement 4. Manipulation and Coercion
54
Can you name the SIX reasons why we need to assess Knowledge Management?
1. Evaluate the need for Knowledge Management solutions 2. Identify gaps in existing Knowledge Management provision 3. Establish a baseline for implementation 4. Identify contributions and impact made by Knowledge Management processes 5. Understand quality of effort required 6. Is the cost of Knowledge Management justified?
55
What are the THREE areas in which Knowledge Management can be measured?
1. People 2. Process 3. Performance
56
When the impact of Knowledge Management is measuring 'People', what THREE areas does it look at?
1. Employee Learning - is the KM enhancing employee's learning and exposure to the latest knowledge in their field 2. Employee Adaptability - is the KM preparing them to respond and accept changes 3. Employee Job Satisfaction - is the KM providing more satisfaction as a result of the increased knowledge
57
When the impact of Knowledge Management is measuring 'Process', what THREE areas does it look at?
1. Effectiveness - is the KM leading to fewer mistakes, quick adaptation in changing times 2. Efficiency - is the KM leading to productivity improvement and cost savings 3. Innovation - is the KM creating new ideas for processes
58
When the impact of Knowledge Management is measuring 'Performance', what TWO areas does it look at?
1. Direct Impact - is the KM leading to value-added products, improved strategy etc. 2. Indirect Impact - is the KM having a positive impact on activities not directly linked to revenue and costs, i.e. scale of economy, scope economy, sustainable competitive advantage
59
When measuring the success of knowledge management what two methods can be used?
1. Qualitative | 2. Quantitative
60
Can you describe a Qualitative Knowledge Management assessment?
When completing a Qualitative Knowledge Management assessment you get a basic understanding of whether or not not knowledge management is working, gained through employee interview and surveys.
61
Can you describe Quantitative Knowledge Management assessment?
When completing a Quantitative Knowledge Management assessment is measured logically and economically such as Return of Investment (RoI), cost savings etc. But this is difficult to measure.
62
What is Data Mining?
Data Mining is the non-trivial extraction of previously unknown and potentially useful patterns from data, which allows us to create information through actions which are manifested in knowledge.
63
What are Patterns?
Patterns are a statement in some language that describes relationships among elements in a set of data with some level of certainty.
64
What is Information Architecture?
Information Architecture is the structural design of shared information environments, and the act of creating the structure or map of information.
65
What are the TWO types of user behaviours when interacting with information environments?
1. Known-item Searching | 2. Exploratory Searching
66
What is Known-item Searching?
Known-item searching is when a user knows what they are looking for and how it is labelled.
67
What is Exploratory Searching?
Exploratory searching is when a user has a vague idea of what they are looking for, browsing around in hope to find it.
68
What are the TWO types of Information Organisation schemes?
1. Exact Organisation Schemes | 2. Inexact Organisation Schemes
69
What are Exact Organisation Schemes?
Exact Organisation Schemes are schemes which are well-defined, mutually exclusive categories. Examples: - Alphabetic: Staff list - Geographical: Maps - Chronological: TV Guides
70
What are Inexact Organisation Schemes?
Inexact Organisation Schemes are schemes which are ill-defined, overlapping categories. Examples: - Topical: Yellow Pages - Task-based: action driven user interfaces - User-specific: target prospective students for a University
71
What is Knowledge Codification?
Knowledge Codification is about putting organisational knowledge into a form that makes it accessible to those who need it.
72
What are the FOUR general steps in Knowledge Codification?
1. Decide business goals for codification 2. Identify knowledge existing for the goals 3. Evaluate usefulness and appropriateness of knowledge for codification 4. Identify an appropriate medium for codification
73
What are Knowledge Maps?
Knowledge Maps are a method used to help codify and make accessible tacit knowledge. They act as a guide to help locate a knower who may contain the knowledge you are looking for (metadata). They assembled by combining individuals' knowledge then following a trail of recommendations - e.g.: LinkedIn Skills Section
74
What is SKOS?
SKOS stands for Simple Knowledge Organisation Scheme. SKOS is used simply to map areas of knowledge and relationships to them, the relationships can be: 'broader', 'narrower', 'related'.
75
What eXtensible Markup Language (XML)?
eXtensible Markup Language (XML) is an information representation language which was designed to emphasise simplicity, usability, readability and internet usage (transmission of data). It is a meta-language which allows users to define their own document elements.
76
What is a Resource Description Framework (RDF)?
Resource Description Framework (RDF) is the foundation of the Semantic Web which provides: 1. A common format (using XML) for integration and combination of data drawn from diverse sources 2. A basis for recording how the data relates to real world objects
77
What are Business Rules?
A business rule is a statement that defines or constrains some aspects of the business. It is intended to assert business structure or to control or influence the behaviour of the business. It is the formal expression of knowledge or preference, a guidance system for steering behaviour in a desired direction. Made using natural languages. Examples of Business Rules: - Anyone placing an order is a customer - Customers are identified by address, post-code and contact number - Only managers can discount merchandise
78
What are the THREE types of Business Rules?
1. Structural Business Rules 2. Behavioural Business Rules 3. Constraint Business Rules
79
What are Structural Business Rules?
Structural Business Rules are statements about the data objects that an organisation's business deals with
80
What are Behavioural Business Rules?
Behavioural Business Rules are statements about dynamic aspects of the business
81
What are Constraint Business Rules?
Constraint Business Rules are statements about conditions under which an organisation's business operates
82
What are the FIVE characteristics of good individual Business Rules?
1. Relevant and Justified 2. Atomic 3. Declarative 4. Intelligible 5. Reliable
83
What are the THREE characteristics of good Business Rule Sets?
1. Complete 2. Minimal 3. Consistent
84
What are the FIVE advantages of using Business Rules?
1. Knowledge focused way of architecting new systems 2. Easy to maintain 3. Short development cycle 4. Easy for incremental development 5. Focusing on what matters
85
What is Case-Based Reasoning?
Case-Based Reasoning is a method used to attempt to codify expert experience by collecting "solved" cases, applying them to new cases. A case contains a description of a problem or situation along with the solution. - A stored case is a solved case - An input case is a new case to be solved
86
What are the THREE advantages of using Case-Based Reasoning?
1. Cases implicitly capture relationships and exceptions that may be missing from explicit knowledge codification 2. Do not need to deal with generalisation of knowledge in codification 3. Relatively inexpensive to develop
87
What is a Data Warehouse?
A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-varying, non-volatile collection of data that is used in decision making. The key purpose of a data warehouse is to support business analysis.
88
What is Big Data?
Big Data refers to the things one can do at a large scale that cannot be done at a smaller one, to extract new insights or create new forms of value. Data comes from a variety of sources including: - Scientific data - Public sector - Ubiquitous computing - Business data
89
What are the 3 V's of Big Data?
1. Volume 2. Velocity 3. Variety
90
What does Volume mean in regards to Big Data?
Volume in regards to Big Data means that more data means better information, so when you can try and keep everything, but ensure you have the scalable processing and storage infrastructure to deal with that.
91
What does Velocity mean in regards to Big Data?
Velocity in regards to Big Data means that rate of flow of data into an organisation in terms of a stream which could be continuous or window. The velocity of data and storage of a continued stream of data means that businesses will have timeliness of their data which is essential for business analytics.
92
What does Variety mean in regards to Big Data?
Variety in regards to Big Data means that data can be either structured or unstructured (e.g. social media), as a result, clean-up is necessary and can be a challenge.
93
How is Big Data and Rumsfeld of Knowledge Management related?
- There are things we know, we know: these are FACTS which need to be checked against data. - There are things we know, we don't know: these are QUESTIONS that can be answered via data - There are things we don't know, we know: these are DISCOVERIES that can be made from data - There are things we don't know, we don't know: these are MYSTERIES that can be revealed through their data
94
What is the Internet of Things (IoT)?
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the interconnection via the Internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects. Examples: - Smart Homes - Smart Cities - Health - Security
95
What are the FOUR implications that the Internet of Things (IoT) will have on Knowledge Management?
1. 'Embedded' organisational learning via monitoring and feedback 2. Making 'hidden' knowledge explicit through pervasive and ambient monitoring 3. Delivering actionable information at the point of need via mobile devices and context-aware services 4. Detecting the success or failure of informed actions
96
When considering the balance between humans and machines in Knowledge Managment, what are Skill-based behaviours?
Skill-based behaviours are sensory-motor actions that are highly automatic, typically acquired after a period of training. Example: A pilot mastering the controls of a plane. This type of behaviour is the best candidate for automation, assuming there are reliable sensors for state and error feedback - LoA
97
When considering the balance between humans and machines in Knowledge Management, what are Rule-based behaviours?
Rule-based behaviours are guided by subroutines, stored rules or procedures. Example: A pilot following correct in-flight procedures. This type of behaviour is a possible candidate for automation, if a rule set is well established and tested.
98
When considering the balance between humans and machines in Knowledge Management, what are Knowledge-based behaviours?
Knowledge-based behaviours are mental models built over time. Example: A pilot managing an emergency landing This type of behaviour some automation can be used to help organise, filter, and synthesise data.
99
How does the balance between humans and machines in Knowledge Management relate to Rumsfeld?
- There are things we know, we know: this is EXPLICIT knowledge that machines can store, process, and maintain - There are things we know, we don't know: these are QUERIES we can run, analyses which can be automated - There are things we don't know, we know: this is TACIT knowledge and INTUITIONS we can quantify or qualify against data - There are things we don't know, we don't know: these are MYSTERIES we can uncover, which is challenging for both human and machine

Knowledge Management (1 decks)

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