RM A2: L1-6 Flashcards
1
Q
What is a content analysis?
A
- research methods used to study and analyse the content of communication like text, images and media
- goal is to understand patterns, themes or messages within the content
2
Q
How is content analysis carried out on large pieces of data?
A
- use of coding system of pre determined categories that can be applied to the content
- pilot study often used to test the categories to ensure they are separate and do not overlap
- coding could be counting the number of times a word/behaviour appears
3
Q
What is thematic analysis?
A
- more focused form of content analysis working with qualitative data
- used to identify, analyse and interpret key themes or patterns in the data
4
Q
Content analysis +ve:
A
- produces reliable data
- if was to be repeated in the future results would be similar/consistent
= produces quantitative data
= allows for trends and patterns in data to be identified - less time consuming than other research methods like interviews when collecting data
= strong external validity as data already in real world so high mundane realism - ethical issues like confidentiality avoided as data already in public domain
5
Q
Content analysis -ve:
A
- not very scientific or objective
- can be subjective based on themes used
= can be invalid, are themes really measuring the effect of IV on DV - data collected needs to be contextualised
- adds complexity and subjectivity
- e.g. sleep behaviour in lab is different context to sleep at home
= possible observer bias but can be eliminated by inter-rater reliability - possible interpretative bias, researcher may pay extra attention to certain things while ignoring others
6
Q
What are the stages of a content analysis?
A
- sampling
- decide how behaviour/material should be sampled
- time or event sampling? - record data
- table/video?? - analyse/categorise data
- summarise data quantitatively or qualitatively? - tally up amounts
7
Q
What is a case study?
A
- detailed study into the life of a person
- covers a great detail into their background
- looks at past and present behaviour of the individual to build a case history
- provides qualitative data
- usually focus on a small number of people as usually only few people with a rare behaviour
- aim to be scientific in their approach
8
Q
What is a longitudinal study?
A
- when the case study takes place over a long period of time
- person/group is tracked over a period of time to look for changes that might occur
9
Q
Examples of case studies:
A
- case study of HM from memory
- Little Hans for psychodynamic approach
10
Q
Case studies +ve:
A
- detailed so able to gain in depth insight
= forms basis for future research - studying of unusual behaviours lets us infer things about usual behaviour of humans
= allows the study of situations that would be unethical/difficult to investigate directly
11
Q
Case studies +ve:
A
- not generalisable to wider population as data gathered from small group
= various interviewer biases like social desirability bias for unique individual and interpretive bias from researcher - retrospective studies may rely on memory which could be inaccurate
= time consuming and difficult to replicate
12
Q
What is reliability?
A
- how consistent the findings from an investigation are
13
Q
What is internal reliability?
A
- describes how consistent the test is within itself
- whether the different parts of a test or study consistently assess the same thing
- measuring instrument gives the same results on different occasions
14
Q
How is internal reliability assessed?
A
split half method
- randomly select half go questions and put in one form
- put rest in another
- both forms of this test should be done separately but end in same result
- correlated with coefficient ≥0.8
15
Q
What is intra researcher reliability?
A
- examines the consistency of the individual researchers behaviour during research
- achieved if the researcher behaves consistently during research
16
Q
What is external reliability?
A
- when consistent results are produced despite when the investigation is done or who it is done by and with
- findings should be consistent over time or with different groups
17
Q
How is external reliability assessed?
A
- test retest method
- inter observer/rater reliability
- pilot study
18
Q
How is reliability improved?
A
- inter observer/researcher reliability
- adjusting questions in interviews if included
- standardisation of instructions
- researcher training
- vigorous operationalisation, concepts less open to interpretation
19
Q
What is the test retest method?
A
- researcher administers same test on same person on different occasions
- results should have correlation coefficient of ≥0.8
- sufficient time between retest so participant cannot recall answers
- not too long as their attitudes may change
20
Q
What is inter observer reliability?
A
- extent to which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observation of the study
- eliminates subjectivity bias
- may be carried out in pilot study or at end of the study
21
Q
What is a pilot study?
A
- conducting small trial run of the study before main research
- ensures procedures and resources are of good standard
- helps minimise human error
22
Q
How can reliability be improved in self-reports (questionnaires)?
A
- if low test-retest or inter rater reliability
- items of survey deselected or rewritten
- replace open questions which are open for misinterpretation with closed questions, less ambiguous and clearer
23
Q
How can reliability be improved in self-reports (interviews)?
A
- best way to ensure reliability is to use same interviewer each time
- if not then all interviewers must be properly trained
- all interviews should be structured in a certain manner
- structured interviews so interviewer behaviour more controlled by fixed questions
= more than one interviewer, inter researcher reliability
24
Q
How can reliability be improved in observations?
A
- making sure behavioural categories set have been properly operationalised, sir they are measurable and self evident
- categories should not overlap
- if not can lead to inconsistent records
= inter observer reliability - observers may need further training
25
How can reliability be improved in experiments?
- standardisation of instructions
- procedures should be identical for each participant
26
What is validity?
- refers to the extent to which results of a research study are legitimate
27
What is internal validity?
- whether the outcomes observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not another factor
28
What is internal validity affected by?
- investigator effects
- demand characteristics
- participant variables
- confounding variables
- social desirability bias
- lack of operationalisation
29
How is internal validity assessed?
- concurrent validity
- face validity
30
What is concurrent validity?
- extent to which a psychological measure compares to a similar existing measure
- results obtained should match or be similar to the results of the established version of this test
31
What is face validity?
- when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to
- can be done through simply looking at it or passing it to an expert to check
32
How to improve internal validity?
- reduce investigator effects, 2 researchers
- reduce demand characteristics, double/single blind procedure
- tackle confounding variables, pilot study, test retest
33
What is external validity?
- relates to factors outside the investigation
- how well the results gained from the research can be generalised to other settings, people and time lines
34
What are the types of external validity?
- ecological validity
- temporal validity
- population validity
35
What is ecological validity?
- extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and settings
36
What is temporal validity?
- findings are true over a period of time
- generalisability to other historical times and eras
37
What is population validity?
- generalisability to different populations of various ages, genders and cultures etc.
38
How can external validity be assessed?
- meta analysis, comparison of findings from research towards same hypothesis being compared
- consider env of test, lab not natural
- assess how DV was measured, method of measure and task given can have effects
- assess whether participants were acting naturally, ensure demand characteristics are kept to min
39
How to improve external validity?
- reduce demand, double/single blind procedure
- more natural setting like field experiment rather than lab
40
How is validity improved experimental research?
- control group, ensure IV is affecting DV
- standardise procedures
- single/double blind
41
How is validity improved in questionnaires?
- incorporate lie scale to diminish social desirability bias
- ensure anonymity so participants are not wary and inclined to be dishonest
- avoiding leading questions
- closed, direct questions to reduce ambiguity
42
How is validity improved in observations?
- high ecological validity by minimal intervention by the researcher
- covert observations by observer
- precise behavioural categories, no overlapping or ambiguity
43
How is validity improved in qualitative methods?
- interpretative validity, extent to which researchers interpretation matches those of their participants
- ^ coherence with researcher reports and direct quotes from p
- triangulation, use of different sources for evidence
44
What is a paradigm?
- a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a scientific discipline
- model or set of rules that people follow because they believe it works well
45
mid l5
