Russia Masterdeck Flashcards
study this bitch (157 cards)
1
Q
How did Alexander II enforce autocracy?
A
stuck to autocratic rule (esp. after assassination attempts), but realised that changes needed to be made from above before the peasants revolted. Widespread programme of reforms - Tsar Liberator.
2
Q
How did Alexander III enforce autocracy?
A
intense autocratic rule. Much undoing of his father’s reforms. Believed that the Slavic people were too lazy and unintelligent to merit democracy or great change.
3
Q
How did Nicholas II enforce autocracy?
A
continuity of severe autocratic rule like his father. However, October Manifesto 1905 & setting up of the Duma appeared to be a move towards democracy
(only after 1905 Revolution). Fundamental Laws 1906 cushioned the blow of democracy
- maintained his autocratic power.
4
Q
When was Russia ruled by dictatorship?
A
October 1917 - 1991
5
Q
What is the ‘Labour theory of Value?’
A
- used as justification for Lenin’s overthrowing of Tsarist rule
- outlines a struggle resulting from exploitation of the workers, eventually resulting in a government run entirely by the workers
6
Q
How did Lenin implement Marxism-Leninism?
A
- Views passed on to the people through writing & pamphlets
- The Bolshevik Revolution of Oct’ 1917 - overthrowing the Prov Gov
- Civil War (1917-21) against the counter-revolutionaries
- War Communism (nationalising large companies, forced requisitioning of agricultural produce, State monopoly of goods & services) - implemented harshly using the Cheka
- NEP - implemented after the Civil War to ensure support of the moderate Bolsheviks (although actually caused a split in the party between the pragmatists and the hardliners)
7
Q
Between what years was Totalitarianism enforced in Russia?
A
1928 (onwards until his death in 1953)
8
Q
What was included in Stalins totalitarialism ideology?
2 parts
A
- A centralised economy would be based on central planning and collectivisation
- Personalisation of the system - Stalin would be in sole control of the economy,
society, and politics (achieved through propaganda, increased censorship, and widespread repression & Purges)
9
Q
What was Stalin?
many things, but one begining with M
A
a megalomaniac - he did whatever was needed to gain and maintain absolute control - building a culture of fear
10
Q
Why did Stalin believe Lenin wanted totalitarianism?
A
establishment of the Party Central Committee and the Cheka indicated Lenin’s desire to centralise his control
11
Q
How did Stalin try to solve Russias problems?
A
the 5 Year Plans & Collectivisation were ‘successful’ b/c no-one was allowed to question whether they were appropriate
12
Q
When was the Secret Speech and what did it contain?
A
- 1956
- Revealed that Lenin never wanted Stalin in power
- Stalin had not adequately prepared the USSR for WW2
- Stalin had committed crimes against the Russian people
- Possible allies, e.g. Hungary, had been alienated by Stalin
13
Q
What did Destalinisation include?
A
Releasing political prisoners from the gulags; relaxing censorship; removing the Cult of Personality
14
Q
How was gov first structured?
Tsarist Russia
A
- Tsar
- Council of ministers (lawmaking and admin)
- Imperial council of state (advised on legal & finantical matters)
- Committee of ministers
- Senate
15
Q
How was communist russia gov structured?
A
- All-Russian congress of soviets (main lawmaking body)
- Central Executive committee
1. Politburo (eliete bolsheviks in charge of policy)
2. orgburo (organise party affaris)
3. ogburo (responsible for maintaining law and order) - Sovnarkom (Council of People’s comissars - ministers in charge of departments)
16
Q
What changes did Nicholas II make to government?
central administration
A
October Manifesto (1905) led to the abolishment of the Committee of Ministers, promising greater
representation:
* Its duties were divided between:
* State Council (kept a check on the activity of the Duma)
* Duma (elected assembly of people representing a range of social groups)
* BUT!! Fundamental Laws (1906) ensured that this apparent move towards democracy was actually just supreme autocracy in disguise
17
Q
What changes to government did Stalin make?
central administration
A
1936 Constitution introduced significant political changes & universal suffrage. New representative bodies
introduced:
* Supreme Soviet of the USSR (main lawmaking body)
* Soviet of the Union (contained representatives from the whole of the USSR)
* Soviet of Nationalities (represented particular regional groups)
* BUT!! Article 126 of Stalin’s Constitution ensured that the Supreme Soviet was really the Communist Party’s puppet
18
Q
What changes to gov did Alexander II make?
central government
A
Emancipation of the Serfs (1861) meant that local politics was placed into the hands of local police constables & the elected zemstva/duma (had previously been the responsibility of the provincial nobles)
19
Q
What changes to gov did the Bolsheviks make?
central government
A
abolished the zemstva/duma after 1917 - local govt was then directed by the soviets
20
Q
What changes to gov did the Soviets make?
central government
A
- First Soviet emerged after the October Manifesto (1905). Primarily concerned with co-ordinating strikes &
protecting factory workers - Soon became hugely influential - members of the SRs and SDs looked to gain influence over them, but they were dominated by Bolsheviks
- March-October 1917: Russia effectively run by the Bolshevik-dominated Soviet
- It dictated when, where & how strikes would occur; also had control over essential services
e.g. transport - PETROGRAD SOVIET ORDER NO. 1 - placed ultimate authority over the soldiers and workers in
the hands of the Soviet, they had more power than the government did
21
Q
What changes to government did Alexander II make?
judicial changes
A
1864: introduction of a jury for criminal cases; created court hierarchy to deal with different cases; better pay for judges to lessen chance of corruption; trials opened to the public - fairer conduction of trials
1877: new department of the Senate set up to try political cases (post-assassination attempt on A2.) However, proven ineffective w/ the Vera Zasulich case & then A2’s death in 1881
22
Q
What government changes did Alexander III make?
judicial changes
A
1881: movement away from ‘liberal’ law & order as approached by A2.
Police centralised under Ministry for the Interior; special courts introduced for political cases; Justices of the Peace replaced by Land Captains (landowners who oversaw the zemstva)
23
Q
What government changes did the Communists make?
judicial changes
A
1917 ONWARDS: idea of ‘revolutionary justice’ - 1921 criminal code legalised use of terror to deter anti-revolutionary crime. (The whole judicial system rested on this principle)
24
Q
What methods of repression did Alexander II employ?
A
Third Section of the Imperial Chancellory - used to exhile opponents
Okhrana - * Set up in 1880
* Less openly aggressive
* Targeted specific individuals and small groups
rather than large groups of opponents
* Arrested many, but arguably ineffective as A2 was
assassinated
25
What methods of repression did Alexander III/ Nicholas II employ?
Okhrana - Used especially against the SRs and SDs (political
opponents)
* Ended in Feb 1917 - the Prov Gov didn’t want to continue with an organisation so hated by the people
26
What methods of repression did Lenin employ?
Cheka - Dealt with those who opposed the Bolshevik
seizure of power in October 1917
* Integral to implementing War Communism & the
Red Terror
27
What methods of repression did Stalin employ?
OGPU - * Less brutal than the Cheka - implemented in 1924
after the Cheka had served its purpose
NKVD - * Introduced in 1934 when Stalin perceived
dissidence to his rule
* Similar to the Cheka - relentless in clamping down
on opposition
* Made use of show trials and purges
28
How was the army used by the Tsars?
| repression
to mainly quell rebellion/strikes
Alex III: used troops to enforce Russification
Nich II: consistently used troops to control workers’ protests
29
How was the army used by the Bosheviks?
| repression
BOLSHEVIKS: encouraged the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC - soldiers from Petrograd) to become the vanguard of the October Revolution
* MRC merged with Red Guard to form Trotsky’s Red Army - essential to winning the Civil War
* STALIN: used the Red Army to requisition grain & administer the purges
30
How was propaganda used by Nicholas II?
used portraits, pamphlets, photographs, and national events to increase his popularity (esp. post 1905)
31
How was propaganda used by the communists?
they were masters of propaganda - introduced slogans, developed Stalin’s Cult of Personality, published Party newspapers, promoted movements (e.g. Stakhanovism) - all to
bolster support
32
How was consorship used by Alexander II?
censorship relaxed for the first time during the Great Reforms, but then tightened again after assassination attempts
33
How was censorship used by Alexander III and Nicholas II?
stricter censorship (reactionary period!)
34
How was consorship used by the communists?
very rigid censorship, establishment of govt newspapers (Pravda), socialist realism in art, Agitprop (Association of Proletarian Writers)
35
Alexander II's economic reforms?
promoted railway building; Emancipation promised greater entrepreneurialism
36
Alexander III's economic reforms?
Witte’s “Great Spurt” - increased economic & industrial activity - also encouraged the railways
37
Alexander II's political reforms?
introduction of the zemstva & duma
38
Nicholas II's political reforms?
national Duma
(following Bloody Sunday & 1905 Revolution)
39
Alexander II's agrucultural reforms?
Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)
40
Alexander III's agricultural reforms?
1889 Land Captains to supervise peasant activity
41
Nicholas II's agrucultural reforms?
Stolypin reform
* Unused/poorly utilised land made available to the Peasant Land Bank (est. 1883) - peasants could buy this land on favourable terms
* Peasants who were still strip farming (small plots of land spread over 2/3 fields) were given the right to consolidate their land into one unit
42
Communists economic reforms?
* Used policy to centralise life
* Nationalisation through the Supreme Economic Council, War Communism, NEP, Collectivisation & Five Year Plans
43
Communists political reforms?
* Prov Gov tried to introduce democracy via the Constituent Assembly
* Creation of a one-party State after the Bolshevik Revolution
44
Communists agrucultural reforms?
* Collectivisation - all farms were centralised under the government. 90% of production was taken to feed the cities, and 10% was left for the rural population
45
Consequences of the Stolypin reform?
* Good: led to an expansion of wealthy peasants who were more loyal to the Tsar (kulaks)
* Bad: they weren’t satisfied as they believed that the best land was withheld from
the peasants
* 1914: ~2 million had left the village communes, leaving some regions short of rural labour (accelerated by WW1) - this added to the problem of getting food supplies of food going to the urban population
46
Impact of reform on peasants?
generally abused/neglected from 1855-1964,
although Emancipation meant that they had some
freedom. Peasants were always hardest hit by famines.
47
Impact of reform on workers?
exploited by all rulers (but highly valued by
the Bolsheviks). Improvement in working hours, workers’
insurance system & bonus scheme set up towards the
end of 1917. Overall, treated in a similar way to the
peasants though.
48
Who were the populists? (narodniks)
intelligentsia who attempted to challenge Tsarist policy by educating peasants & promoting socialism;
49
Who were the peoples will?
1879: a group which aimed to ignite revolution through terrorist action (i.e. assassination)
50
Who were the social democrats?
1898: Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party, Marxist revolutionary party ancestral to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
51
Who were the Octoborists?
1905: supporters of Nicholas II & his October Manifesto
52
Who were the influential leaders pre 1917?
* Influential opposition leaders include Plekhanov (SD); Lenin (SD/Bolshevik); Struve (Liberal); Milyukov (Kadet)
53
What strikes did the urban proletariat partake in after becoming more politically conscience?
Sympathy strikes after Bloody Sunday (1905) & Lena goldfields (1912). Putilov Works strike (Feb 1917 - marks the start of the February Revolution)
54
How successful were radicals pre 1917?
wanted an end to the Romanovs & implementation of a republic. People’s Will was successful in assassinating A2. Radical opposition from the Bolsheviks brought the dynasty to an end w/ abdication & murder of N2 in 1918
55
How successful were peasants pre 1917?
| opposition
wanted greater freedoms, rights to their land & protection
against famines. Emancipation Edict, zemstva & Stolypin’s reforms appeared favourable. Gains balanced w/ losses - redemption tax, restrictions from the mir, poor distribution of land, Land Captains etc.
56
How successful were workers protests pre 1917?
achieved little pre-1914 - strikes put down w/ considerable
force. No factory inspectorate until 1881 to check working conditions, 10-hour working day not implemented until WW1
57
How successful were national minorities pre 1917?
| opposition
some were successful in gaining greater degrees of
independence/representation - Finland granted full autonomy (1905), Polish National Democrats gained some seats in the 1st & 2nd Dumas
58
How effective were Bolsheviks post 1917?
strongest party after 1917, later transformed into the Communist Party in 1918.
Ban of Factions (1921) reinforced the one-party state (a ban on other parties who defied the will of Communist leadership)
59
How effective was the civil war post 1917?
Whites & Greens were the greatest opponents to Communism. The Poles also posed a threat
60
How effective was infighting post 1917?
post-Lenin’s death, a power struggle occurred between Stalin & the United Opposition (Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev) - this marked the beginning of the Purges within the Party
61
How effective were peasants post 1917?
opposed War Communism & collectivisation; peasant revolts ruthlessly put down by the Communists; kulaks became a particular target
62
How effective were workers post 1917?
less prone to opposing Communism, but would still rebel if they felt they were unjustly treated (e.g. Novocherkassk protests 1962 against food shortages & rising prices)
63
How effective were national minorities post 1917?
much less opposition as a result of 1918, 1924 & 1936 Constitutions, but also due to increased repression
64
What was the nature of opposition when concerning the Bolsheviks?
opposition to the Tsar & Prov Gov - successful in becoming sole leaders of
Russia by 1918, also took Russia out of WW1 & winning the Civil War
* ‘Moderate’ opponents to the Civil War & War Communism appeared within the Bolsheviks -
Lenin appeased them through use of the NEP
65
How did opposition fail concerning Stalin?
opposition unsuccessful due to purges, show trials, & the Great Terror, which created total obedience through fear
66
How effective was opposition concerning Khrushchev?
destalinisation resulted in greater tolerance of opposition - by 1959 there were only 11,000 counter-revolutionaries in the gulags. Still remained difficult to effectively
disagree with Khrushchev’s policies due to secret police
67
How effective was opposition by national minorities?
Poland & Finland achieved full independence through Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk (although Poland became a satellite state after WW2.) Georgia gained temporary independence in 1920; Ukraine made theoretical gains in the 1936 Constitution.
Jews continued to be treated harshly (e.g. settlements & Doctors’ Plot 1952)
68
Attitudes of the Tsars towards political change?
* All showed desire to maintain autocracy
* Some elements of democracy introduced alongside efforts to maintain Tsarist rule:
* A2 = zemstva & duma
* N2 = national Duma
* Zemstva proved to be unrepresentative of the population as a whole; Duma had its powers limited by the Fundamental Law of 1906
69
Attitudes of the Prov Gov towards political change?
More positive attitude towards political change of a more liberal nature
* Aimed to set up the Constituent Assembly
* Freed political prisoners
* Formed an alliance with the Petrograd Soviet
70
Attitudes of the Communists towards political change?
Bolsheviks initially wanted revolutionary political change - forced Tsar to abdicate, challenged Prov Gov and disbanded Constituent Assembly
* Once the Oct Revolution ended, they were more interested in consolidating their power using their political
system
* Constitutions appeared to give greater autonomy to certain groups in the Soviet Union, but under Stalin power
became more centralised
* Stalin was intent on enforcing extreme totalitarianism - used extreme repression to do so
* Khrushchev showed willingness to embrace change by destalinisation & shifting authority to the Party
71
What was the extent of political change under the Tsars?
Ideology & structure of govt largely stayed the same
* Leaders made some changes but were aware that they needed to maintain autocracy
* A2 - reform from above before it was forced from below
* A3 - October Manifesto & Duma (too little too late?)
* All Tsars used a mixture of reform & repression to keep opposition under control
* Thus is is perhaps misleading to call A2 the “Liberator” and A3 the “Reactionary”
72
What was the extent of political change under the Prov Gov?
* Their principles that guided the establishment of the Constituent Assembly contributed to its
downfall - too much freedom at such a crucial time
* E.g. releasing political prisoners allowed opposition groups to gather momentum
* The Constituent Assembly was short-lived & replaced dramatically by a Bolshevik dictatorship
73
What was the extent of political change under the Communists?
* Political change came about under Lenin & Stalin through the 1924 & 1936 Constitutions
* Extended the range of influence over a number of republics
* Also suggested that each member state would have some autonomy
* Stalin’s reign was typically the most totalitarian - personalisation of power
* More marked change occurred with destalinisation & a move back to a form of democratic
centralism
74
Reasons for economic change?
1. Accelerating industrialisation to create a wealthier Russia (consistent emphasis on heavy industry)
2. Catching up with the West - Britain, France & Germany’s economic success appeared to be based on developing their coal and iron industries
3. Emulating industrial revolutions (like those in Britain & France) would increase & maintain Russia’s military status
75
Extent of ceconomic change?
| Tsars
extensive economic change (although slow growth); 1909-13 saw output increase by 7% & GNP by 3.5% per year (not quite enough to match Russia’s main competitors)
76
Extent of economic change?
| Communists
more substantial growth of the GNP per annum - before 1940 it was between 5-6% (extra wealth came from iron, steel, coal & electricity). HOWEVER this wealth was not distributed amongst the people & came at great human cost - 3.4mil worked in forced labour camps to reach targets
77
Key industrial changes under the Tsars?
* Reutern Reforms (1862-78) - encouragement of foreign investment & foreign technical expertise
* Railway construction - the Trans-Siberian line
* The Mendele’ev Tariff (1891) - raised government revenues by applying tariffs to all imported goods
* Witte’s Reforms (1893-1903) - the Great Spurt saw huge increase in economic & industrial activity
78
Key agricultural changes under the Tsars?
* Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)
* Introduction of the Peasant Land Bank (1883)
* Stolypin Reforms (1906-11) - the ‘wager on the strong’ and land reforms
* Emergence of the kulaks & commercial farming
79
Key industrual changes under the communists?
* State Capitalism - central control of the economy through the Supreme Economic Council (December 1917)
* War Communism - nationalisation, partial militarisation of labour, and grain requisitioning
* NEP - denationalisation of small-scale businesses & a return to private ownership (appeasing moderates after the war)
* Centralised Planning - the 5-Year Plans under Stalin and Khrushchev, and the aim of economic self-sufficiency
80
Key argucultural changes under the communists?
* Collectivisation & dekulakisation (1929 onwards)
* The kolkhozy (collective farms) & the sovkhozy (state farms)
* The motor tractor stations (MTS)
* These were responsible for loaning tractors to peasants, distributing seed, collecting grain, and deciding what peasants could keep for their own consumption
* Virgin Lands Scheme (1954 onwards) - encouraging agriculture (maize) in Kazakhstan & Western Siberia (failure - by 1964, 165mil acres had been given over to wheat production)
81
Reasons for social change?
1. Population growth stimulated by better economic conditions (rising birth rate & falling death rate)
2. Rural exodus as peasant families sought industrial work
3. Decline of the nobility by 1914 - a result of having to sell land to pay off debts
4. Communist ideology - placed an emphasis on equality & gave greater authority & responsibility to workers
82
Extent of social change?
* POPULATION GROWTH: population grew by 138 million from 1858-1960 (although this was affected by the change of
the Empire/USSR’s composition)
* SOCIAL STRUCTURE: by the end of the 19th Century, Russian society was still rurally based (80% pop. reliant on
agriculture); by 1914 rise of the middle class had occurred (industrialists, merchants & professionals); nobility in decline
(lost millions of acres of land)
* The Communists caused the biggest changes in societal structure - majority of society was now workers,
governments dominated by bureaucratic nomenklatura (despite promoting egalitarian society). Status
rankings then began appearing amongst workers - some called “experts” received special privileges.
83
Tsar changes to elementary school?
* A2 placed education in the hands of the zemstva
* By 1887 - Ministry of Education had taken control of elementary provision
* Introduction of school inspectors
* Rise in primary schools - 23,000 in 1880 to 81,000 in 1914
84
Tsar changes to secondary school?
A2 introduced a new code for secondary schools - doubled the
number of attending pupils by 1865
* A2 allowed private schools (albeit with an approved curriculum)
* A2 - state-sanctioned curriculum
* A3 reversed his father’s ban on lower-class children from
attending secondary schools
85
Tsar changes to higher education?
* A2 promoted the growth of universities
* Stolypin - all non-academic meetings of students at universities were made illegal (the rise of the intelligentsia was risking the stability of autocracy)
* A3 took away much autonomy of the universities
86
Communist changes to elementary school?
* 1930: attendance at primary school made compulsory to the age of 12
* By 1930: 18 million children attending primary schools
* Stalin’s educational policy was developed to increase economic & industrial production, and to indoctrinate children with the Communist ideology
87
Communist changes to secondary school?
* Polytechnic schools (vocational courses) replaced the bourgeois
gymnasia
* By 1932: 6.9mil pupils attending secondary schools
* 1939: Stalin scrapped school fees
88
Changes to rural living conditions?
1855-1964: peasants constituted the bulk of the population
* Living conditions remained the same across the period, although there was regional variation & some different ‘class’ of peasant (kulaks esp. after Stolypin’s Reforms)
89
Changes to rural housing?
* Animals and people accommodated in a small hut heated by an oven - conditions were cramped & dirty
* Stalin made some changes - housing blocks constructed on the periphery of the new collective farms (kulaks often allocated the worst housing b/c persecution)
* Khrushchev ordered self-contained agro-towns to be constructed, but they were built cheaply & quickly and were therefore of a poor standard
90
Changes to rural working conditions?
* Work on the land was dictated by the seasons; the success of farmers depended on the quality of their soil, the weather, and their ability to nurture their crops
* Governments tried to intervene in this process - the peasants came off worse (they were seen as less important than the urban workers)
91
How did the Emancipation edict (1861) impact rural working conditions?
* In theory, freed serfs to work as they wished on their own land
* Redemption tax & influence of the mir restricted peasant activity
92
How did Stolypin's reform (1906) impact rural working conditions?
* Created the kulaks: a class of independent, wealthy, surplus-producing peasants
93
How did War Communism impact rural working conditions?
* Kulaks were accused of hoarding grain
* The Cheka was employed to requisition grain & imprison kulaks who were considered “anti-revolutionary”
94
How did the NEP impact rural working conditions?
* Attitude towards the kulaks changed - they were now deemed ‘cultured & educated’ but were still persecuted (they paid higher taxes, were disenfranchised, and their children were barred from state schools)
95
How did collectivisation impact rural working conditions?
* Kulaks were now deemed incompatible with collectivisation
* Dekulakisation (1928-30) - roughly 6-8mil people sent to work camps in Siberia
* Stalin siphoned off grain for export & used the income to finance industry - this increased the strain on supplies made available to peasants & workers, as they saw no return for their efforts
96
How did the Virgin land campaign impact rural working conditions?
* Khrushchev’s scheme once again put sections of the peasantry under pressure to increase their productivity - except the growing conditions were not compatible with huge agricultural gains
97
How did famine impact peasants?
* Peasants were being put under an increasing amount of
pressure to produce more for urban dwellers who had no time
to grow their own food
* More food was being distributed away from peasant communities
* Between 1855-1964 there were numerous periods of famine & food shortages which hit the peasants the
hardest
98
How did exporting grain effect peasants?
The policy of exporting grain, especially seen under Witte &
Stalin, exacerbated food shortages & contributed to famines
99
1819 famine:
Alex III
caused by: * Adverse weather
* Panic selling of grain surplus to counter impact of
a new consumer goods tax
consequences: * Food shortages
* Peasants sold the surpluses to gain extra income
to cover the tax increase
* Over 350,000 died
100
1914-18 famine:
Nich II & Prov Gov
causes: * Disruption to trade and transport during WW1
* Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
consequences: * Food shortages
* The treaty signed over valuable grain-producing
areas in the Ukraine
101
1921 famine:
Lenin
causes: * Terrible winters, severe droughts
* Destruction of transport infrastructure during the Civil War
* Lenin reluctant to respond to the crisis &
reluctance to accept American aid
consequence: * More than 5 million people died
102
1932-34 famine:
Stalin
causes: * Repression was being placed on the people in Ukraine who resisted collectivisation
* Impossibly high requisition goals were set - leaving no grain for the people to eat
* This was a man-made famine
* The death penalty was implemented for those who kept their grain - even if they had produced the grain themselves, they were “stealing” because it belonged to the people
103
Improvement in the 1930s?
* By 1935: food production was increasing, but by the start of WW2 total food output was less than
pre-WW1 levels
* The diet of workers seemed to have worsened under the Communists
* Late 1930s: consumption of meat & fish had fallen by 80%
104
WW2 and food supplies:
* Collectivisation was relaxed - removal of private land restrictions encouraged a rise in food production
* This was short-lived, another famine hit in 1947
* The pattern of poor harvests & food shortage continued under Khrushchev
* Despite Virgin Lands & improvements to state pricing, food still had to be imported
* OVERALL adherence to ‘socialised agriculture’ (collectivisation) led to inefficiency & insufficiency
105
How did urbanisation effect the people?
* Urbanisation was a slow & gradual process - went handin-hand with industrialisation
* Urbanisation encouraged public health problems of
overcrowding, substandard housing, inadequate water
supplies & poor drainage
* Resulted in disease outbreaks (e.g. cholera)
* Caused new problems for the leaders to deal with
106
Changes to urban housing?
| 19th century - 1917
* End of the 19th Century: 15% Russians lived in towns & cities - only 19 cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants
* By 1914: over 1,000 towns containing ~2mil buildings; over 50% housing constructed from fire-prone wood; most houses
were lit by kerosene (few had access to electricity & gas); ~200 towns had piped water; 38 towns had sewer systems
* Urbanisation caused rapid-spreading diseases - 1910 St Petersburg: 100,000 deaths caused by cholera
* Workers’ housing built near to industrial cities: hastily built, overcrowded & insanitary
107
changes to urban housing?
| 1917 -
* Decree on Land (1917): issued by the Bolsheviks, focused on what the party intended to do about housing - private
dwellings in towns & cities would be handed to the proletariat (under guidance of the soviets)
* Stalin: reversed many of Lenin’s housing improvements: new high-rise tenements allocated space to families & individuals
rather than rooms - overcrowding became the norm
* WW2 resulted in 25mil becoming homeless
* Moscow 1930s: multiple families had to live together in one room
* Khrushchev: doubled housing stock between 1955-64, abandoned principles of communal living.
* Introduction of housing cooperatives favoured the professional classes - they were the only ones who could afford to pay the deposits
108
Urban working conditions under the tsars?
* Urban workers - either service industry or manufacturing
* Worst conditions were in the factories, mines, iron & steel
plants, and engineering works
* No factory inspectorate until 1882
* Working conditions remained dangerous & unhealthy for
many
* There were too few inspectors & they had limited
powers of enforcement
* Internal passports - controlled migration to urban areas to
alleviate some of the issues linked to living/working
conditions
109
Urban working consition changes under the tsars?
* 1882: employment of children under 12 in factories
banned (although loosely enforced)
* 1896: 11-hour working day fixed by law - workers not
obliged to work on Sundays
* 1903: workers’ insurance scheme introduced (adapted in
1912)
* 1914: statutory holidays introduced, most employers now
operating a 9/10hr working day
110
Urban working conditions under the communists?
* Working conditions for the proletariat seemed to worsen
initially
* Work hours extended; pay lowered; harsh enforcement of
new ‘work discipline’
* Stalin’s regime imposed heavy fines for breaking work rules;
some workers were threatened with being ‘purged’ if they
were found out to be ‘wreckers’ (those who slowed/disrupted
production)
111
Urban working consition changes under the commuinists?
* 1920: Rabkrin (Workers’ & Peasants’ Inspectorate)
established, but proved to be a step backwards (more of
a discussion group rather than a law-enforcement body)
* 1932 onwards: Stalin demanded that workers adhered to
a 10/12hr working day to fulfil the 5-Year Plans
* 1939: average working day reduced to 7hrs as a result of
alleged success of the first 5-Yr Plan; bonus schemes
introduced; Stakhanovite movement popularised
112
Who represented the peoples views?
* ZEMSTVA (1864): set up to express views of rural people at a local level - members elected
by property qualification (included landowners, urban dwellers, and wealthier peasants)
* DUMA (1905): elections to the national duma - but again the franchise was limited
* Elections under the Communists did exist, but were highly controlled by the nomenklatura.
* E.G. under Stalin the Central Committee was a collective body elected at the annual
party congress - authorised to meet at least twice a year to act as the Party’s supreme
governing body
113
When was the Crimean war?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1853-56
Russia & Ottoman turks (Britian and France)
Siege of Sevastopol - R troops surrendered
Treaty of Paris (1956) - Russia concided territory in Bessarabia
| Alex II
114
Effects of Crimean war?
| Social - Development of Russian Empire & USSR
Realisation that Russia’s economic & social infrastructure was outdated - esp. serfdom:
* Serfdom geared Russia towards agricultural economy w/ tight control by the aristocrats (control by
the aristos = preserving autocracy & the Romanov dynasty)
* EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS (1861) allowed for entrepreneurialism in agriculture (e.g. selling
surpluses at markets); movement of some rural labour to urban industry; modernisation of military
& social reforms (without the Tsar/nobility losing their authority)
115
Effects of Crimean war?
| Military - Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Modernisation of the military: emancipation meant that peasants had less of an obligation to serve as conscripts - ergo A2 changed how the army was recruited, changed & organised
116
Effects of Crimean war?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* MOST IMPORTANT - forced changes in local government!
* Nobility no longer had such a huge role to play in local govt
* A2 bridged the gap between the isolated newly-emancipated peasants & the rest of society with the zemstva
* Appeared to introduce some democracy to Russian government
117
Strengths of the Zemstva?
* Members elected by a mixture of landowners, urban dwellers, & peasants (based on a property qualification)
* It could feed regional issues back to central
government
* To an extent, could challenge the policies
of the Tsar
118
Weaknesses of the Zemstva?
* Councils tended to be dominated by the nobility/professional classes
* Only located in locations considered to
be in Greater Russia - not in Poland, the
Baltic Region, or the Caucasus
* Not all eligible provinces were
covered by zemstva - by 1917 there were still
37 provinces w/o one
119
Limitation of reform?
| Crimean war - Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* War didn’t lead to any major change in ideology or structure of central govt
* A2’s main aim was to preserve autocracy - all reforms & emancipation were reform from ‘above’ before change came from ‘below’ - A2
realised that discontent over Russia’s performance in the war may have led to rebellion
120
How did the Tsars deal with political parties?
* Allowed to exist, although
heavily monitored & controlled
* Emergence of the Narodniks,
People’s Will, SRs, SDs,
Liberals, Kadets & Octobrists
121
How did the Tsars deal with pressure groups?
* Pre-1905: trade unions banned
* 1905-1917: trade unions
allowed to exist w/ very limited powers
* Post-1905: workers’ councils (soviets) appeared & tolerated
* ProvGov formed the “Dual Authority” w/ Petrograd Soviet
* Soviets essential in the Bolshevik seizure of power
122
How did Tsars deal with the media?
* Censorship used to control freedom of expression
* Government departments used their own newspapers to publish official news
* A2/N2 - some relaxation of censorship, A3 - tight control
123
How did the Tsars deal with religious freedom?
* Russian Orthodox Church
* Non-Orthodox religious groups (Old Believers, Sectarians, Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Muslims) tolerated but often encouraged to convert
124
How did the Communists deal with political parties?
* One-party State
* Russian Communist Party dominated Russia from March 1918 onwards
125
How did the Communists deal with pressure groups?
* Trade unions valued, but were subordinate to the needs of the government rather than the proletariat
126
How did the Communists deal with the media?
* Censorship used widely to control freedom of expression
* Stalin: writers & artists were forced into socialist realism - art being guided by the idea of the people working together to overcome oppression
* Khrushchev: eased censorship but maintained official Party & government
newspapers (e.g. Pravda)
127
How did the Communists deal with religious freedoms?
* Severe restrictions placed on the Russian Orthodox Church
* “Decree on the Separation of the Church from the State and the School from the Church”
* Withdrew State
subsidies & prevented
religious groups from
possessing any property
128
When was the Russo-Japanese war & revolution?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1904, 1905
129
Reasons for the Russo-Japanese war and resulting revolution?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* **Russia & Japan pre-1904**
* Many quarrels over Korea & Manchuria
* Russia looking to increase their influence in the Far East - lease of Port Arthur from the Chinese
* Chinese Eastern Railway & occupation of Manchuria - increased Russian threat to Japan (esp.
as troops were kept in Manchuria)
* Feb 1904: Japanese attack on Port Arthur (sparked the war)
* The Course of War
* Disastrous for Russia - defeated at Battle of Yalu; Port Arthur surrendered; Russian naval fleet
trounced in Tsushima Straits; Battle of Mukden = humiliating defeat
* **TREATY OF PORTSMOUTH (1905):** humiliation for Russia - made to withdraw from Manchuria
& Port Arthur, had to acknowledge Japanese sovereignty over Korea
130
Effects of the Russo-Japanese war?
| Social - Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Mounting discontent - N2 & the govt blamed for
losing to an ‘inferior’ country; Plehve (Minister
of the Interior) assassinated in July 1904
* N2 lifted restrictions on the zemstva (had been
imposed by A3), but they resulted to open
criticism of the tsar & demands for reform
* **Oct 1905: N2 published the October
Manifesto**, outlining plans for the introduction
of a national Duma (introduced to appease the
increasing opposition to his regime)
* Initially the Duma appeared revolutionary
(represented move towards constitutional
monarchy) - but the** Fundamental Laws 1906**
meant that N2 kept his autocratic control (Duma
was subservient to the monarch)
131
What were the events of the 1905 revolution?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Some claim that the events of 1905 (Bloody Sunday,
October Manifesto) constitute a revolution as they
seemed to influence N2’s decision to set up a Duma
* 3rd Jan: Putilov Works Strike
* 9th Jan: Bloody Sunday
* March: Battle of Mukden
* June: All-Russian Union of Peasants
established
* Sept: Mutinies in the army
* 8th Oct: Railway workers’ strike
* 13th Oct: St Petersburg Soviet established
* 17th Oct: N2 published October Manifesto
132
when was WW1?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1914-1918
133
What happened during WW1 for Russia?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
NICHOLAS II / PROVISIONAL GOVT / LENIN
* Involvement in WW1 was due to failure to resolve the Eastern Question (issues arising due to instability & collapse of the Ottoman Empire) AND deterioration in relations with Austria-Hungary
* Russian mobilisation order resulted from Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia (Russia had an obligation to support fellow Slavs)
* WW1 went badly for Russia - 8 million casualties; N2’s incompetence as a wartime leader contributed to his abdication
* Ended for Russia in Dec 1917 w/ the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (negotiated between the Bolsheviks & Germany - Soviet Russia forced to pay reparations & give up territory to the Germans)
134
Did WW1 have an impact on the Russian Gov?
| Yes
* **WW1 was necessary if autocracy in Russia was going to disappear altogether**:
* Military failures resulted in economic
challenges - impacted greatly on the daily lives
of Russian on the home front - social unrest grew
to new heights
* Authorities struggled to cope w/ scale of coordination needed between military & industry -
drastic change in govt needed to avoid anarchy
* War resulted in huge errors by the Tsar - terrible
personal control of armed forces; absence in the
capital (Petrograd) left a power void; handed
control of domestic/political affairs to his German
wife (her background & Rasputin led to great
resentment amongst Russian people)
* **RESULT**: formation of the ProvGov - a positive
development; its downfall was the unnecessary
continuation of the war
135
Did WW1 have an impact on the Russian Gov?
| No
* **War was not a turning point**: tsars had been struggling w/ the issue of constitutional reform for decades
* War did not suddenly result in a clamour for change; people knew that N2 was an incompetent leader and it was only a matter of time until he was deposed
* Worker opposition to the govt had gathered momentum well before the war began
* Legalisation of political parties, growth of trade
unions & establishment of soviets helped worker
consciousness to emerge
* **ERGO** the pessimist view emphasises the importance of the workers’ efforts over time which led to the abdication of the tsar, rather than external events (war)
136
The February Revolution overview:
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Participation in WW1 caused deterioration in
socioeconomic conditions
* This in turn intensified criticisms of N2 & his governance
* Feb 1917: matters came to a head when a
series of strikes & protests led to workers being fired upon by troops
* **Roughly 1/2 the Petrograd garrison decided to join the protesters** & the Petrograd Soviet was created to rule alongside the Provisional Duma Committee
* N2 had no choice but to abdicate (2nd March 1917)
* An official ProvGov was formed to deal with the
situation until a Consistent Assembly could be
declared
137
The October Revolution overview:
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Summer 1917: members of the Soviet (+
increasing numbers of Bolsheviks) were
becoming frustrated with the ProvGov
* Their main grievances were related to economic
issues & the nature of Russia’s continuing
participation in the war
* **October:** the Bolsheviks had a majority in the
Soviet & used their advantage to seize power of
the ProvGov
138
The 1917 revolution impact on the Russian Government:
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* The 1917 Revolutions were of fundamental importance to Russian history - their impact is massive
* Autocratic rule replaced by ProvGov - more liberal rule, issued decrees on free speech & political amnesty
* **HOWEVER **when Lenin came to power: totalitarian regime comparable to the autocracy of the tsars, even though he had promised a dictatorship of the proletariat
* Members of the old ProvGov were arrested by the Bolsheviks - instead replaced by new political figures who opposed the bourgeoisie
* The Bolsheviks encouraged formation of soviets in other Russian towns & cities (they needed to gain support from other regions in order to maintain power)
* Oct 1917: Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets authorised the Bolsheviks a mandate to rule provided the soviets would be the true base of power; most of Congress was happy when they seized control, but the right-wing SRs & Mensheviks walked out in protest because they thought it signalled the start of a Bolshevik monopoly of power
* The Bolsheviks allowed elections to the Constituent Assembly, but came second to the SRs - Lenin shut down the Assembly after a single day because he did not have enough of a power base - this caused uproar
* **Jan 1918:** Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets proclaimed the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federalist Republic - new political structure based around Sovnarkom (Soviet of People’s Commissars - like a cabinet)
* Although members of Sovnarkom were the result of elections, the system was dominated by the Bolshevik Party - Russia soon resembled a single party state
139
When was the Civil war?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1917-1922
140
Key events of the Civil War?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Nov ’17: Kerensky & Gen. Krasnov’s counter-offensive halted
* April ’18: Lenin proclaimed that the war was about to end after defeating Kornilov’s Volunteer Army - but then foreign intervention introduced (British marines supporting the Whites)
* Dec ’18 - Dec ’20: Red Army vs Whites (Reds had large degrees of success). Nationalities (e.g. Ukraine) began demanding freedom from central control - this resistance soon receded
* April ’21: Polish forces attacked Russia & reached Kiev - Reds counter-attacked and pushed Poles back to Warsaw
* Aug ’21: Polish counter-attack forced Reds to retreat
* Oct ’21: Russo-Polish conflict came to a halt with the Treaty of Riga
* Nov ’21: Reds drove out the last of the Whites from southern Russia
* Throughout ’21: groups of armed peasants formed to oppose the Bolsheviks (the Greens) - they wanted more freedoms
141
The Civil War's effect on forgein policy?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Strength of opposition forced Lenin to adopt a
**conciliatory policy**, although they maintained the hope of world revolution & Comintern (Communist international body responsible for spreading Communism overseas)
* Foreign intervention showed Lenin that he needed to
prove to the Western powers that Russia wasn’t a threat
to Britain, France & the USA, otherwise he was in trouble
142
Civil War's effect on domestic policy?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* War ethos of strong discipline, administration & management influenced government
style - many of those who served in the Red Army also served in the post-war govt
* War Communism: nationalisation of large enterprises & state monopoly of markets,
as well as partial militarisation of labour & forced grain and crop requisitioning
* **War Communism** caused significant unrest - Lenin replaced it with the **NEP**,
denationalising small-scale businesses & allowing peasants freedom to sell surplus
products
* Short-term impact of this was beneficial, but by the mid-20s critics became
more vocal (v. Capitalist approach to economic policy!)
* **Politburo & Orgburo** became the main focus of government - centralisation of
power quelled unrest
143
When was WW2?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1939-1945
144
Events of WW2
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* **1939 NAZI-SOVIET PACT**: temporary peace between
Germany & Russia, although unlikely to last long
* Russia hoped to use the time to prepare for possible
Japanese or German attack
* June 1941: Operation Barbarossa = Nazi invasion of the
USSR - signalled start of Russia’s involvement in WW2
* War had significant social & economic effects - more
limited political impact though
145
Ideology during WW2
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* USSR’s govt was already centralised & authoritarian
* It would be difficult to argue that it became more totalitarian as a result of the war, especially because other governments had to adopt similar measures due to the conflict
146
Structure of govenment during WW2
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Structure of government remained relatively stable
* Stalin became Supreme Commander of the Military & Chairman of the State Defence Committee - absolute control over the military & over arms supply factories
* Stalin still listened to his key advisors, esp. key members of the Politburo (Molotov, Mikoyan etc.) and relied on their judgement (they all retained their positions in govt after the
war)
147
Repression during WW2
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* NKVD was active during the war, this continued after it ended
* Whereas during the war the NKVD purged the party of minority groups accused of aiding the Nazis, post-war they reverted to purging the party & other dissidents
* Cult of Stalin strengthened as a result of his ‘heroic’ efforts in pushing the Nazis out of Russia
148
Forgein Policy during WW2
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Tehran & Yalta conferences confirmed Russian claims to territorial frontiers established under the NaziSoviet pact
* Western powers permitted Stalin to exert a sphere of influence over much of Eastern Europe - critical to create a buffer zone between the West & USSR
* The issue of Germany caused problems between powers - Germany & Berlin divided into 4 zones (Russia had control over the East)
* 1948 Berlin Blockade & Berlin Wall worsened relations between Russia & the West - the key problem of unifying Germany was not resolved as a result
149
When was the Cold War?
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
1947-1991
150
Key events of the Cold War
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
March ’47: Truman responded to the possibility of Communist govts being established in Greece & Italy by issuing the Truman Doctrine (USA would actively support rebels against Commie rule)
* June ’47: Marshall Plan presented for the economic recovery of Europe - rejected by Molotov as a scam to spread Capitalism
* Sept ’47: Cominform (co-ordinating Eastern Europe’s economic recovery) set up to counter the Marshall Plan (but abandoned in ’56)
* June ’48: Berlin Blockade began (all Soviet communication blocked with the other sectors of the city as a retaliation to the new plans for a unified currency in the Western zones)
* April ’49: NATO founded - obvious that it was designed to combat the Soviet threat
* May ’49: Berlin Blockade ended
* May ’55: Warsaw Pact formed (a peace & security treaty between the USSR & other EE countries)
* Oct ’56: Hungarian Uprising - following Khrushchev’s ‘Secret Speech’. 4th Nov - USSR invaded Hungary to prevent the
‘revolution’ from getting out of hand
* Aug ’61: construction of the Berlin Wall began
* May ’62: US U2 spy plane shot down over Russia - Khrushchev demanded an apology from President Eisenhower
151
Ideology during the Cold War
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Destalinisation - presenting a more favourable view of Russia to the West by denouncing Stalin’s policies & announcing greater transparency
152
Domestic policy during the Cold War
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Arms Race prompted high levels of investment in heavy industry - prompted unrest (e.g. ’62 Novocherkassk worker protests - dealt with ruthlessly)
153
Foreign policy during the Cold War
| Development of Russian Empire & USSR
* Several situations nearly caused war between the USA & USSR
* E.g. Cuban Missile Crisis - very nearly resulted in nuclear war but a diplomatic solution was reached
* Showed that Khrushchev was both willing to confront and
compromise w/ the West
154
Nationalities in Russia context
| history of Tsars attitudes
* The composition & extent of the Empire changed over time
* Policies of expansionism & Russification led to an increase in Russian influence (to the Polish-German borders & Far East)
* Wars & revolution often led to shrinkage of the Empire (e.g. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)
* Changes in central govt often led to rise in nationalist movements in parts of the Empire
* Russian leaders either dealt with nationalist uprisings by force, or by making concessions
* In the mid-19th Century, the Russian Empire consisted of **GREAT RUSSIA & THE NATIONAL MINORITIES** (those who didn’t originate from the Russian people)
* Great Russians: came from the territory which formed the Old Russian Principality
- the centre of this region was Moscow
155
Nationalities in Russia conext 2
| minorities
* The main minority groups came from Poland, Finland, the Caucasus & Central Asia, and the Baltic Provinces (Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania). Russian Jews were also a minority group, although largely limited to the Pale of Settlement
* The minorities were significant - together they outnumbered the number of Great Russians in the Empire
* Not all national minorities opposed the ruling classes:
* The **Finns, Baltic Germans & Christian Armenians were fairly loyal**
* The **Poles, Ukrainians & Tartars were a constant irritation**
* All minorities were treated roughly the same (except the Jews were often subject to persecution!)
* All leaders tried to Russify minorities in what proved to be naive attempts to create stability within the Empire/USSR
156
Uncooperative minorities attempts to gain independence
* The main aim of each uncooperative minority group was to break away from central rule & gain independence
* The success of each national group’s attempts varied according to time & place
* E.G. 1864 in Poland: the **Milyutin Plan** emancipated Polish serfs on more favourable terms than their Russian counterparts; Polish nobles were exiled to Siberia & their land was seized; rural district councils were set
up (similar to zemstva)
* HOWEVER after the Russo-Polish War (1920) this was reversed & Poland entered a stable period of independent rule
* BY CONTRAST, Russian Jews never achieved the same kind of freedoms because they had no specific homeland within the Empire - they were often subject to violent **pogroms**
157
How did the Polish Revolt (1863)
