SAC 2 Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
What is adrenaline?
A
A hormone that is secreted during stress; may also enhance memory consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences.
2
Q
What characterizes Alzheimer’s disease?
A
A type of dementia characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes.
3
Q
Define amnesia.
A
Loss of memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting.
4
Q
What is the amygdala?
A
A structure located deep within the brain involved in emotional reactions and formation of a variety of emotional memories.
5
Q
What are amyloid plaques?
A
Substances found outside neurons in the brain of people who develop Alzheimer’s disease.
6
Q
What is an antecedent?
A
A stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour.
7
Q
Describe the Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory.
A
Represents memory as consisting of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
8
Q
What does attention refer to
A
A concentration of mental activity that involves focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
9
Q
Define behaviour.
A
Any action a person (or animal) uses to adjust the environment; may be overt or covert.
10
Q
What does the behavioural model emphasize?
A
The role of learning processes in describing and explaining behaviour.
11
Q
What is beneficence in research ethics?
A
The potential benefits of the research to participants or the wider community.
12
Q
What is a case study?
A
An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, group, organisation or situation.
13
Q
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
A
Coordinating timing and fluency of movements; involved in formation of long-term motor skill memories.
14
Q
Define the cerebral cortex.
A
The thin, outer layer of the brain involved in complex mental abilities, sensory processing, and voluntary movements.
15
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
A type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimuli.
16
Q
What is a conditioned emotional response?
A
An emotional reaction in response to a specific stimulus acquired through classical conditioning.
17
Q
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A
The learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning.
18
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A
The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process but eventually elicits a conditioned response.
19
Q
Define conditioning.
A
A learning process through which stimuli and responses become associated with one another.
20
Q
What is a confounding variable?
A
A variable other than the independent variable that affects the dependent variable, making it hard to determine cause and effect.
21
Q
Define a conscious response.
A
A reaction to a sensory stimulus that involves awareness; usually voluntary and goal-directed.
22
Q
What is a consequence in operant conditioning?
A
The environmental event that occurs immediately after a behaviour and determines whether it will be repeated.
23
Q
What is consolidation in memory?
A
The biological process of making a newly formed long-term memory stable and enduring after learning.
24
Q
What is a control group?
A
The group in an experiment not exposed to the independent variable; used for comparison with the experimental group.
25
Define convenience sampling.
Sample selection procedure involving choice of participants who are readily available; also called opportunity sampling.
26
What is a cross-sectional study?
A research method involving selection and comparison of groups of participants at a single point in time.
27
Define dependent variable.
The variable in an experiment that the researcher measures to assess the effect of the independent variable.
28
What are descriptive statistics?
Used for analysing, organising, summarising, and presenting results.
29
What is a double blind procedure?
A method ensuring neither participants nor researchers know which participants are in the experimental or control group.
30
What is echoic memory?
Auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory information that stores sounds for about 3 or 4 seconds.
31
Define ecological validity.
The extent to which research findings can be generalised to real-life behaviours and natural settings.
32
What is elaborative rehearsal?
The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with existing knowledge to aid memory storage.
33
What does encoding refer to in memory?
The conversion of information into a usable form for neurological representation and storage.
34
What is episodic memory?
The long-term explicit memory of personally experienced events.
35
What are ethics in research?
Standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable, or acceptable behaviour.
36
What is an ethics committee?
A group established to assess research proposals for approval and monitor adherence to ethical standards.
37
What is an experiment?
A research method to test whether one variable influences or causes a change in another variable under controlled conditions.
38
What is an experimental condition?
A condition in an experiment where participants are exposed to the independent variable.
39
What is an experimental group?
The group in an experiment that is exposed to the independent variable.
40
What is experimenter effect?
An unwanted influence on participant performance and results due to the researcher.
41
What is experimenter expectancy?
A type of experimenter effect occurring when the researcher provides cues about expected responses.
42
Define explicit memory.
Memory that can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.
43
What is external validity?
The extent to which study results can be generalised to the population from which the sample was drawn.
44
What is extinction in conditioning?
The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a response over time.
45
Define extraneous variable.
Any variable other than the independent variable that can cause a change in the dependent variable.
46
What is forgetting?
The inability to access or recover information previously stored in memory.
47
What is free recall?
Reproducing information from memory in any order, without assistance from any cues.
48
What does generalisation refer to in research?
A decision about how widely the findings of a study can be applied.
49
What is the hippocampus?
A structure involved in formation of long-term explicit memories and their transfer to the cortex for storage.
50
What is iconic memory?
Visual sensory memory for incoming visual information that stores images for about a third of a second.
51
Define implicit memory.
Memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval.
52
What are independent groups in research?
An experimental design where each participant is randomly allocated to one of separate groups.
53
What is an independent variable?
The variable that is manipulated to test its effects on the dependent variable.
54
What are individual participant differences?
The unique combination of personal characteristics, abilities, and backgrounds each participant brings to research.
55
What are inferential statistics?
Used for interpreting and giving meaning to results.
56
What is informed consent?
Participant consent for research involvement based on sufficient information and understanding.
57
Define internal validity.
The extent to which results are due to the variable(s) tested and not other factors.
58
What is an interview in research?
A method where a researcher asks questions to obtain self-report data.
59
What does justice refer to in research ethics?
The use of fair procedures and ensuring fair distribution of costs and benefits.
60
What is learning?
A relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.
61
What is long-term memory?
A memory store that holds a potentially unlimited amount of information for a very long time.
62
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory.
63
What is the mean in statistics?
The arithmetical average of all individual scores in a set.
64
What is a measure of central tendency?
A score indicating the central value of a set of scores.
65
What is a measure of variation?
A score indicating how widely scores are distributed around the central point.
66
What does memory refer to?
The processing, storage, and retrieval of information acquired through learning.
67
What is a model in psychology?
A general explanation of observations or findings about behaviour and/or mental processes.
68
What is modelling in psychology?
The process of observational learning where one uses a model's actions and consequences to guide future actions.
69
What is naturalistic observation?
When a researcher views and records behaviour in its natural environment.
70
What is negative punishment?
The removal or loss of a desirable stimulus, weakening the likelihood of a response.
71
What is negative reinforcement?
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus, strengthening the likelihood of a response occurring again.
72
What is a negative reinforcer?
An unpleasant stimulus that, when removed, increases the frequency of a specific response.
73
Define neural plasticity.
The ability of the brain’s neural structure or function to change due to experience.
74
What is a neurodegenerative disease?
A disorder characterized by a progressive decline in the structure, activity, and function of brain tissue.
75
What is a neurohormone?
A chemical messenger released by a neuron into the bloodstream to target cells.
76
What is a neutral stimulus in classical conditioning?
An object or event that does not produce a predictable response but can become a conditioned stimulus.
77
What are non-standardised research procedures?
Procedures that are not the same for all participants except for exposure to the independent variable.
78
What does objective mean in research?
Not involving personal opinion or interpretation.
79
What is observational learning?
Learning that occurs through observing a model's actions and their consequences.
80
What is an observational study?
Collection of data by watching and recording behaviour as it occurs.
81
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning where consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood of it being performed again.
82
What is operationalising in research?
Defining independent or dependent variables in terms of procedures used to measure them.
83
What is an order effect?
When a participant’s response is influenced by the order in which tasks are presented.
84
What does percentage represent in statistics?
A descriptive statistic expressing a number as a proportion of 100.
85
What is a placebo?
An inactive substance or fake treatment that resembles the independent variable but has no known effect.
86
What is the placebo effect?
A change in behaviour due to belief in receiving experimental treatment rather than the effect of the independent variable.
87
What is a placebo treatment?
A fake treatment in a research study to determine the effectiveness of a new treatment.
88
What is a population in research?
The entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.
89
What is positive punishment?
Presentation of an unpleasant stimulus that weakens a response.
90
What is positive reinforcement?
Presentation of a positive reinforcer following a desired response, strengthening it.
91
What is a positive reinforcer?
A stimulus that increases the frequency of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence.
92
What is practice effect?
Influence on performance arising from repeating or prior experience with a task.
93
What is primary data?
Information collected directly by the researcher for their own purpose.
94
What is procedural memory?
The long-term implicit memory of motor skills and actions learned previously.
95
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
Delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response to weaken it.
96
What is qualitative data?
Data involving the qualities or characteristics of a participant's experience.
97
What is quantitative data?
Numerical information on the quantity of what is being studied.
98
What is a questionnaire?
A data collection tool with a written set of questions designed to collect self-report data.
99
What is random allocation?
Procedure used to place participants in experimental and control groups to ensure uniform distribution of characteristics.
100
What are the 'qualities' or characteristics of a participant's experience of what is being studied?
Qualitative data
## Footnote
Qualitative data focuses on the subjective experiences and perspectives of participants.
101
What type of data provides numerical information on the 'quantity' or amount of what is being studied?
Quantitative data
## Footnote
Quantitative data is often used in statistical analysis to determine trends and relationships.
102
What is a data collection tool with a written set of questions designed to collect self-report data?
Questionnaire
## Footnote
Questionnaires can be administered in various formats, including paper and online.
103
What procedure is used to place participants in experimental and control groups to ensure uniform distribution of participant characteristics?
Random allocation
## Footnote
Also known as random assignment, it helps mitigate selection biases.
104
What sampling procedure ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a participant?
Random sampling
## Footnote
Random sampling is crucial for achieving a representative sample.
105
What is a data collection tool with fixed-response questions or statements for which participants rank each item?
Rating scale
## Footnote
Rating scales are commonly used in surveys to measure attitudes or perceptions.
106
What is the process of consciously manipulating information to keep it in short-term memory?
Rehearsal
## Footnote
This can include techniques such as maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
107
What term refers to a stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency of a response that it follows?
Reinforcement
## Footnote
Reinforcement can be positive or negative, affecting behavior in different ways.
108
What is any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency of a response?
Reinforcer
## Footnote
Reinforcers can include rewards or other stimuli that encourage desired behaviors.
109
What is the extent to which the results obtained from a research study are consistent and dependable?
Reliability
## Footnote
Reliability is crucial for validating research findings.
110
What term refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test material?
Repeatability
## Footnote
Repeatability is an important aspect of research replication.
111
What is an experimental research design where each participant is in both the experimental and control groups?
Repeated measures/within subjects design
## Footnote
This design allows researchers to control for participant variability.
112
What does the term 'representative sample' refer to?
A sample that closely matches the population from which it is drawn
## Footnote
A representative sample helps to ensure the generalizability of research findings.
113
What refers to the closeness of agreement between independent results obtained under different conditions?
Reproducibility
## Footnote
Reproducibility is critical for confirming the reliability of research findings.
114
What is the imitation of behavior that has been attended to and retained in memory?
Reproduction
## Footnote
Reproduction is a key component of observational learning.
115
What is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables in a research study?
Research hypothesis
## Footnote
Hypotheses guide the direction of research investigations.
116
What term refers to research committed to honest and proper conduct?
Research integrity
## Footnote
Research integrity is essential for maintaining trust in scientific findings.
117
What does 'respect for human beings' mean in relation to research ethics?
Recognizing and taking account of the rights, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds of participants
## Footnote
This principle is fundamental to ethical research practices.
118
What is a reaction by an organism to a stimulus called?
Response
## Footnote
Responses can vary widely based on the stimulus and the organism.
119
What is the term for when any stimulus valued by an organism is removed, weakening the likelihood of a response?
Response cost
## Footnote
Response cost is associated with negative punishment.
120
What is the second step in the observational learning process involving memory storage of observed behavior?
Retention
## Footnote
Retention is crucial for later reproduction of the observed behavior.
121
What term refers to the recovery of stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness for use?
Retrieval
## Footnote
Retrieval is essential for utilizing learned information.
122
What is any stimulus that assists in locating and recovering information stored in memory?
Retrieval cue
## Footnote
Retrieval cues can enhance memory recall during learning tasks.
123
What is a group of research participants selected from a larger group called?
Sample
## Footnote
Samples are used to make inferences about the larger population.
124
What term describes the process of selecting participants from a population of research interest?
Sampling
## Footnote
Different sampling methods can affect the quality of the research findings.
125
What type of data is collected by someone other than the original user?
Secondary data
## Footnote
Secondary data can be useful for comparative studies or meta-analyses.
126
What are a participant's written or spoken responses to questions presented by the researcher called?
Self-report
## Footnote
Self-reports are crucial for gathering subjective data from participants.
127
What type of memory is the long-term explicit memory of facts and knowledge about the world?
Semantic memory
## Footnote
Semantic memory differs from episodic memory, which relates to personal experiences.
128
What is the entry point of memory where incoming sensory stimuli are retained in their original form?
Sensory memory
## Footnote
Sensory memory has a very brief duration, typically lasting only a few seconds.
129
What is a memory system with limited storage capacity that retains information for a short time?
Short-term memory
## Footnote
Short-term memory functions as 'working memory' for processing information.
130
What procedure helps ensure participants are not aware of the condition of the experiment they are allocated to?
Single blind procedure
## Footnote
This method reduces bias from participants' expectations.
131
What theory emphasizes learning as a cognitive process and the importance of the social context?
Social learning theory
## Footnote
This theory highlights the role of observation in learning new behaviors.
132
What statistic summarizes how far scores within a set of scores spread out from the mean?
Standard deviation
## Footnote
Standard deviation provides insight into the variability of data.
133
What is the term for when directions given to all participants in a study are identical?
Standardised instruction
## Footnote
Standardised instructions help ensure consistency in research methodology.
134
What is the term for when a technique for measuring responses is the same for all participants?
Standardised procedure
## Footnote
Standardised procedures help control for extraneous variables in research.
135
What term refers to any object or event that elicits a response from an organism?
Stimulus
## Footnote
Stimuli can be external or internal, affecting behavior and reactions.
136
What does 'storage capacity' refer to in relation to memory?
The amount of information that can be retained at any given moment
## Footnote
Storage capacity varies among individuals and can be influenced by cognitive strategies.
137
What term describes the length of time that information can be retained in memory?
Storage duration
## Footnote
Storage duration is influenced by factors like rehearsal and the type of information.
138
What does 'storage' refer to in relation to memory?
Retention of encoded information over time
## Footnote
Effective storage is essential for later retrieval of information.
139
What sampling procedure involves dividing the population into different subgroups and selecting samples from each?
Stratified sampling
## Footnote
Stratified sampling helps ensure representation of key subgroups within the population.
140
What does 'subjective' mean in research?
Involving personal opinion or interpretation
## Footnote
Subjective data can be contrasted with objective data, which is quantifiable.
141
What substance is found inside neurons in the brain of people with Alzheimer's Disease?
Tau protein/neurofibrillary tangles
## Footnote
These tangles are associated with the neurodegenerative processes of Alzheimer's.
142
What does the three-phase model of operant conditioning explain?
Operant conditioning as having three parts: antecedent, behavior, and consequence
## Footnote
This model illustrates the relationship between stimuli and responses.
143
What is the unconditioned response in classical conditioning?
The response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented
## Footnote
Unconditioned responses are innate and do not require prior learning.
144
What is the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally occurring response
## Footnote
Unconditioned stimuli evoke responses without prior conditioning.
145
What is the extent to which a research study accurately measures what it claims to measure?
Validity
## Footnote
Validity is essential for ensuring research findings are meaningful and applicable.
146
What does 'variability' refer to in statistics?
How widely scores within a set of scores are distributed around a central point
## Footnote
Variability can be assessed using measures such as range and standard deviation.
147
What is a variable in research?
Something that can change in amount or kind and is measurable
## Footnote
Variables are essential for establishing relationships in research.
148
What is vicarious conditioning in observational learning?
When an individual observes a model displaying behavior that is reinforced or punished
## Footnote
Vicarious conditioning influences the observer's future behavior.
149
What is vicarious punishment in observational learning?
When an individual observes a model displaying behavior that is punished
## Footnote
Vicarious punishment can reduce the likelihood of the observer performing that behavior.
150
What is vicarious reinforcement in observational learning?
When an individual observes a model displaying behavior that is reinforced
## Footnote
Vicarious reinforcement can increase the likelihood of the observer performing that behavior.
