sample questions Flashcards
Information from the tongue projects via cranial nerves to the medulla and thalamus,
then on to the insular cortex, the primary sensory cortex for gustation. Another
cortical area receives input from the insula. Name that other cortical area and explain
its role In gustatory information processing.
Anterior insula
- contains primary taste cortex
- neurons primates respond to different combinations providing a distributed representation of tastes, textures, and oral temperature
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How are water soluble hormones different from lipid soluble hormones?
water soluble
- Are peptide hormones (made up of proteins)
- bind to matching protein receptors on the outside of the cell
- this signal is passed on to the proteins in the cells interior. which will bring change in the cell
Lipid soluble
- steroid hormones
- diffuse through the cell membrane
- once inside the cell, the hormone binds to a receptor in the cytoplasm or nucleus to signal the cell
Positive emotions are associated with the activation of three brain regions , whereas
negative emotions are associated with activation of two other regions. Name all five.
Positive emotions: Activates the ventral ventral tegment area, hypothalamus and septum
Negative emotions: Activate the insula and orbitofrontal cortex
Evaluating one’s own actions activates ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Evaluating another actions activates lateral prefrontal cortex and insula
List 5 potential symptoms associated with an occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery.
Similar to stroke symptoms: unilateral (one-sided) weakness and numbness, unilateral facial dropping, unilateral vision changes, difficulty speaking, and loss of ability to understand or express speech
Name 5 symptoms associated with damage to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Inability to detect
errors
difficulty in resolving stimulus conflict
emotional instability
inattention
abulia
Activity in three different cortical regions precede the production of voluntary behavior. These are associated with goal planning, motor program selection and sequencing leading to activation of specific neurons in the corticospinal tract.
Name these 3 cortical regions and place them in the temporal order of their position in the neuronal information processing sequence leading to the execution of a behaviour
na
Briefly describe the effects of prolonged exposure of hippocampal neurons to cortisol.
Prolonged exposure to stress results in prolonged exposure of hippocampal neurons to cortisol, which in turn causes destruction of (or reduces sensitively in) hippocampal neurons. This then reduces the brains ability to shut off cortisol secretion implicated in PTSD.
Bilateral representation of spatial cognition is associated with which brain region? Which hemisphere appears to be uniquely lateralized for spatial behaviour in humans?
It is associated with the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe.
Why does it take so long for humans to become adults?
It takes time for our brains to fully develop, like the prefrontal cortex for things like feeding and appetite. Synaptic pruning can take 16 years in the PFC. The nervous system needs time to mature, and the pyramidal tract gains more inhibitory control over the spatial motor neurons.
Explain why it is that two patients who have sustained a traumatic brain injury may present with an entirely different constellation of symptoms.
Brain injuries come in many forms, depending on the severity of the injury, the age of patient, the location and depth. Whether it was physical damage or something like a concussion. The simplest answer is that no two brains will have the same brain anatomy, this is a result of genetic factors and lived experiences. We are able to divide brains into regions but these are simple forms / organization for typical human brains. Additionally, symptoms vary for each person
Write out the following paragraph in full, filling in the missing terms:
1) A heterogeneous collection of more than two dozen nuclei on each side of the upper brainstem (including the cortex, * basal forebrain* and thalamus are involved in arousal regulation.
Collectively these nuclei are called the *
acetylcholine*. Axons from these nuclei
project throughout the brain
They release distinct
neurotransmitters/neuromodulators such as _____________ that affects the excitability of the _____________ and _____________, mediating the switch between wakefulness and sleep.
Identify the three neural networks (and their neurotransmitters) that processes of attention.
Alerting = norepinephrine
orienting = acetylcholine
executive = dopamine
Write out the following paragraph in full in your answer booklet, filling in the missing terms:
1) In humans the mirror neuron system is centered in the * medial temporal lobe*
2) These neurons are strongly activated in response to the observation of
* behaviours *
3)
Two corticostriatal-thalamic loop circuits have been identified: the primary motor loop and the orbitofrontal loop. With what behaviour is each circuit associated?
motor loop: voluntary movement
orbitofrontal: negative emotions, things like feeding, conditioned emotional response. People with damage suffer an inability to make judgements in incoming information. Also has a role in risk and fear.
The human frontal lobe has been implicated in decision making activities. Which specific frontal lobe regions are associated with:
a) Emotion-modulating functions: pre-frontal cortex
b) Goal-tracking functions: posterior cortex
c) Plan-selecting functions: dorsolateral PFC
Discuss the role played by the hippocampus in mediating various forms of memory
The hippocampus and amygdala play a pivtol role during encoding and retrieval of emotional episodic memory. The hippocampus is a special map, it helps us remeber objects locations when there is a shift in viewpoint between “study” and “test”.
Tractographic studies reveal 3 pathways formerly associated with the arcurate fasciculus. Name them and describe their functional roles in language and short term memory.
Deep AF pathway: connects wenickey’s area with broca’s area.
Shallow pathway 1: connects frontal with interior parietal cortex
shallow pathway 2: connects wernicke’s with inferior parietal cortex. They found one deep pathway, interpreted to directly connected
What behavioural evidence supports the role of the frontal lobe in mediating shortterm memories?
Damage to the frontal cortex is the recognized cause of many short-term memory impairments for tasks in which subjects must temporarily remember the location of stimuli. The tasks themselves may be simple: giveen this cue, make that response after a delay, but as one trial follow another, both animals and people with frontal lobe lesions start to mix up previously presented stimuli.
The anterior and posterior insula play two distinct roles. Briefly describe them.
Anterior insula: olfactory, gustatory, vicero-autonomic, and limbic function
posterior insula: auditory-somesthetic-skeletomotor function.
The insula integrates sensory and autonomic information from the viscera (interoceptive awareness). It serves as a central command center that ensures that heart rate and blood pressure increase at onset of exercise. The insula processes aspects of pain and temperature sensation. It processes taste, balance and hand and eye movements.
Small lesions in the anterior insular cortex lead to loss of balance and vertigo. It plays a role in long and complex spoken language and speech articulation, as evidenced by aphasia in patients with some insular lesions. Other functions include bodily self-awareness and social emotions (empathy, compassion, disgust to smells and to the sight of contamination and mutilation).
How might tractographic information be utilized in a clinical setting?
In a clinical setting, it can be used to help map a specific brain areas before a surgery.
Indicates swelling of tissue, water cannot leave area due to constriction, less blood flow
Measures how far water has traveled, not pathway. The brighter an area, the less water has moved away from it, appears slightly blurry
Briefly describe the two mechanisms of action of anticonvulsants.
Blocks sodium channels: to stabilizing the inactive form: seizures can be caused from the malfunction of ion channels which induces irregular neuronal activity which must be stabilized
enhancing the inhibitory action of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Compare and contrast inflammatory and neuropathic pain.
inflammatory: pain in response to tissue injury or inflammation
- typically improves as a function of healing and resolution of the inflammation
neuropathic: pain in response to injury to the nervous system (nerve damage)
- Does not show much reversal and persists despite an evident resolution of the injury with which the sensation is associated
- does not need to develop in response to any outside stimulus
When a subject is instructed to lie their choice reaction time increases. What brain region shows increased neuronal activity in this situation?.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies on neural correlates of deception have shown that the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were more strongly activated during lying than during telling the truth
The quote below is a descriptive analogy for what two processes of neural development?
“Imagine a new city. It needs roads connecting all the houses and buildings. If roads were built like the nervous system builds connections between cells, then every new city would start by crazily building roads connecting everything. There would be too many roads, and the arrangement might not be very useful. There might be 15 roads to one house, and 2 roads to another, and maybe no roads to another. There might be a bunch of roads between places that will never need them. How to fix this mess? Over time, the roads that are not used are removed, leaving just the roads that carry traffic, and more roads between places that carry the most traffic. In the end, it looks like everything was elegantly planned. Everything is very efficient…”
this has something to do with how as babies we have many connections but as we get older the ones that aren’t used/strong die off but we built other ones that are strong because they are used more.
