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Biology > SB5 Health, disease and the development of Medicine > Flashcards

SB5 Health, disease and the development of Medicine Flashcards

1
Q

Define ‘health’

A

A state of complete physical, mental and social well being

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2
Q

Define disease

A

A problem with a structure or process in the body that is not the result of an injury.

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3
Q

What causes diseases?

A

Microorganisms called Pathogens

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4
Q

What is the difference between communicable and non communicable disease?

A
  • Communicable diseases can be passed on from one person to another
  • non-communicable diseases cannot be transmitted, unless from mother to child
  • communicable diseases are caused by pathogens
  • non- communicable diseases are caused by a problem with the body, or as a result of our lifestyle
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5
Q

What are the different types of non-communicable disease causes?

A
  • genetic disorders: faulty arrangement of alleles
  • malnutrition: when we don’t have enough nutrients due to our diet
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6
Q

How can diseases be correlated?

A

One disease may cause damage to the immune system which would make it easier for other pathogens to enter

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7
Q

Define obesity and explain what it leads to

A

When your body has a large store of fat formed under the skin and around organs such as the heart and the kidneys, which leads to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease

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8
Q

What is BMI and how do you calculate it?

A

Body Mass Index, is a calculation to predict how much body fat your body contains
BMI = mass/ (height^2)

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9
Q

What are the problems with using BMI to calculate the amount of body fat?

A

It doesn’t take into account muscle fat

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10
Q

How does smoking increase the chance of cardiovascular disease?

A
  • damages the lining of the arteries + encourages the building of fatty materials in the arteries, which could lead to a heart attack
  • inhalation of carbon monoxide decreases the amount of oxygen in the blood
  • nicotine in the smoke increases heart rate
  • chemicals in smoke increase the likelihood of blood clotting
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11
Q

How can cardiovascular disease be treated?

A
  • life long medication
  • lifestyle changes
  • surgery
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12
Q

State and explain the two types of surgery you can do to get rid of/ease cardiovascular disease

A
  • Bypass: gets around the clogged arteries by inserting other blood vessels
  • Stents: Balloon with a stent inserted then balloon inflated and removed leaving the stent holding the artery open
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13
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

When a waxy plaque builds up in the coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen

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14
Q

What are the four types of pathogens?

A
  • viruses
  • bacteria
  • fungi
  • protists
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15
Q

Describe the following for Cholera:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) human
b) diarrhoea, vomiting
c) through water
d) water is treated in most countries to kill pathogens
e) bacteria

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16
Q

Describe the following for Tuberculosis:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) human
b) damages lungs, causes blood-speckled mucus, breathing problems, coughing, fever, weight loss,
c) droplets produced during sneezing/ coughing which mix with dust and can infect when inhaled
d) ‘catch it, bin it kill it’
e) bacteria

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17
Q

Describe the following for stomach ulcers:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) human
b) sores in stomach lining, stomach and abdominal pain
c) orally, through food and water, thought to be spread after people touch their mouth immediately after going to the toilet
d) washing hands, not touching other’s food
e) bacteria

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18
Q

Describe the following for Chalara Dieback:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) plants
b) causes lesions on the trunk and branches; leaves die earlier; cell death
c) spreads through air as tiny, tough spores carried by the wind
d) cut down contaminated trees
e) fungi

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19
Q

Describe the following for Malaria:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) humans
b) multiplies inside red blood cells, when protists break out it causes fever, weakness and sickness
c) protist carried in red blood cells carried by mosquitos from an infected person. mosquito injects blood directly into next person’s blood, but the vectors themselves remain unaffected
d) control the spread of the vector through killing them / preventing breeding
e) protist

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20
Q

Describe the following for Ebola:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) human
b) causes the breakdown of blood vessels, liver, and kidney cells; causing internal bleeding and fever
c) enters people’s bodies through broken skin, eyes, nose, or mouth
d) full body protection
e) virus

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21
Q

Describe the following for HIV:
a) host
b) Symptoms
c) spread
d) prevention
e) type of pathogen

A

a) human
b) attacks and destroys white blood cells in the immune system; leads to AIDS, as their immune system can no longer protect them from secondary infections
c) sexually transmitted, through shared needles, from mother to child
d) physical contraceptives; sterilised needles
e) virus

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22
Q

What are the types of transmissions of pathogens?

A
  • direct contact
  • through water
  • through air
  • unhygienic food prep
  • vector
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23
Q

What are the two life cycles of the virus and what are the differences?

A
  • lytic pathway: short term
  • lysogenic pathway: long term
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24
Q

Describe the lytic pathway

A
  • virus attaches itself to the host cell
  • virus releases genetic information into host cell, forming a circle and may degrade host DNA
  • cell makes new genetic material and viral protein
  • components assemble into new viruses
  • viruses break cells down/ push through the cell membrane (lysis)
25
Q

Describe the lysogenic pathway

A
  • virus attaches itself to the host cell
  • virus releases genetic information into the host cell
  • viral genetic information combines with the host genetic information forming bacteriophages
  • host cell divides copying viral DNA/ RNA and host DNA
  • host cell keeps dividing, sometimes virus DNA separates
  • virus now enters the lytic pathway
26
Q

Describe a few physical defences of plants against pathogens

A
  • outer surfaces of leaves and stems are covered by a waxy layer called the cuticle
  • Woody plants also protect their stems with a thick layer of bark
  • if pathogens get through the barriers, they must penetrate the tough cell walls to actually infect the plant
27
Q

How can pathogens bypass the plant’s physical defences?

A
  • getting in via the stomata
  • fungi release enzymes that soften cell walls enough to get into the plant
  • other infect parts of weaker growth
  • could get in through pests that pierce the plant
28
Q

Describe some chemical defences that plants possess

A
  • cells of some plants which can produce antimicrobial chemicals, proteins, and enzymes
  • some plants only produce repellent when attacked
    -some plants release compounds that can attract larger insects than the pests which feed on the pests and stop them from eating the plant
29
Q

How do we avoid contamination in the lab whilst producing new medicines

A
  • flaming an inoculating loop
  • using an autoclave to sterilise equipment and growth medium
30
Q

How can plant diseases be identified?

A
  • observing visible symptoms, including changes in growth; changes in colour blotching of leaves or lesions on stems or leaves
  • distribution analysis which looks at where the damaged plants are located, which helps find the cause
  • diagnostic testing: sending samples to the lab for testing
31
Q

What physical defences does the human body have?

A
  • mucus: traps bacteria and other pathogens before they reach the lungs and cause infections
  • cilia: wafts away mucus that has trapped pathogens to be killed by stomach acid
  • skin: provides a physical barrier against pathogens, protecting the tissue and cells beneath it from infection
32
Q

What chemical barrier does the human body have?

A
  • lysozymes: used by white blood cells to kill and digest bacteria
  • hydrochloric acid: used to kill bacteria in food before reaching the stomach to prevent infection
33
Q

What are STIs?

A

Sexually transmitted diseases which are infections that are spread through sexual contact

34
Q

What are some examples of STIs?

A
  • chlamydia: often symptomless but if there are symptoms, these can include painful urination or pelvic pain, left untreated it can lead to infertility
  • HIV: increased susceptibility to other infections; severe illness and death if untreated
35
Q

How can STIs be prevented?

A

By using barrier methods of contraception or by abstaining from sexual activity

36
Q

What are antigens?

A

Molecules on the outer surfaces of virus and cell particles

37
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Complementary to antigens and located on white blood cells called lymphocytes. Once they bind, the pathogen can no longer bind

38
Q

What are memory lymphocytes?

A

Some of the lymphocytes that will remain in the blood that match the pathogen’s antigens even after the pathogen has been defeated

39
Q

Describe the steps the immune system goes through once under attack from a pathogen

A
  • pathogen gets through bodies physical barriers
  • in the blood, the pathogen comes into contact with white blood cells called lymphocytes
  • any lymphocyte that has antibodies on its surface that match the antigens on the surface of the pathogen becomes activated
  • an activated lymphocyte will divide rapidly to produce many identical copies of itself
40
Q

What is immunisation?

A

Inserting an inactive form of a disease-causing pathogen to be introduced in the body which contains a specific antigen. This causes the immune system, specifically the white blood cells to produce complementary antibodies which target and attach to the antigen

41
Q

What are the benefits of immunisation?

A
  • eradicated many diseases and reduced the occurrence of many
  • epidemics can be prevented through herd immunity
42
Q

What are the drawbacks of immunisation?

A
  • not always effective in providing immunity
  • bad reactions such as fevers can occur as a response to vaccines
43
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When the majority of the population has immunity against serious disease, which means even those who haven’t taken the disease will be protected because they are less likely to come into contact with an infected person

44
Q

What are antibiotics used to treat?

A

Bacterial Infections

45
Q

What are new drugs tested for today?

A
  • toxicity
  • efficacy
  • dose
46
Q

How are new drugs tested today?

A

Through preclinical testing and clinical trials

47
Q

How were plants used to help treat human disease?

A

They used to produce certain chemicals which we used to extract to treat certain diseases, such as aspirin from willow and digitalis (for heart problems) from foxgloves

48
Q

Describe how penicillin was discovered

A
  • Alexander Fleming was growing bacteria on plates
  • he found mould (penicillin mould) on his culture indicating there was no more bacteria as seen through the clear rings
  • he found out that the mould was producing a substance called penicillin, which killed bacteria
49
Q

Describe what occurs in preclinical testing

A
  • drugs tested on computer models + human cells grown in the labs
  • allows efficacy and side effects to be tested
50
Q

Describe what occurs in animal trials

A
  • happens after preclinical testing
  • only medical products are allowed to undergo animal testing in the UK
  • typical test: giving a known amount of substances to animals then monitoring them carefully for side effects
51
Q

Describe what happens in human clinical trials

A
  • drugs that pass the animal testing stage end up here
  • initially tested on healthy volunteers
  • then tested on those with the actual disease
  • low doses initially used then increased to find optimum dose
52
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies and what are they used for?

A

Identical copies of one antibody used to target chemicals and cells in the body

53
Q

Give some examples of where monoclonal antibodies are used

A
  • Pregnancy kits
  • Cancer diagnosis
  • cancer treatment
54
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy kits?

A
  • designed to bind with a hormone called HCG which is only found in the urine of pregnant women.
  • HCG will bind to the monoclonal antibodies and will cause a colour change indicating pregnancy
55
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in cancer diagnosis?

A
  • specifically designed to bind with the antigens of cancerous cells
  • then it will clump all the cancerous cells together
  • making it easier to identify a cancerous tumour
56
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in cancer treatment?

A
  • can carry drugs attached to them
  • allows smaller doses of chemo to be used because only cancer cells specifically targeted
  • can reduce side effects + risk to healthy cells
  • can encourage your immune system to fight the cancer directly
57
Q

Describe the formation of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • an antigen is injected into a mouse
  • the mouse naturally produces lymphocytes which can produce antibodies specific to the antigen (lymphocytes can no longer divide once it has started to make antibodies)
  • spleen cells which produce lymphocytes are removed during an operation
  • the spleen cells are fused with human cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells (cancerous cells divide indefinitely)
  • the hybridoma cells divide to produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen, which are then collected
58
Q

What are the advantages of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • can be designed to bind to, and identify almost any substance
  • can be used to treat cancer and help the immune system fight it as well
  • after initially made can be produced quickly
59
Q

What are the disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • has unexpected side effects
  • expensive
  • ethical issues eg: use of animals during production

Biology (17 decks)

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