Schunk Ch 5 Flashcards
(166 cards)
1
Q
______________ theories focus on how people attend to environmental events, encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory, store new knowledge in memory, and retrieve it as needed.
A
Information processing theories
2
Q
_____________ begins when a stimulus input impinges on one or more senses.
A
Information processing
3
Q
Sensory register
A
a
4
Q
Perception
A
pattern recognition
5
Q
STM
A
short-term memory
6
Q
WM
A
working memory; short-term memory is a working memory; working memory is our memory of the immediate consciousness and performs two critical functions–maintenance and retrieval. WM is limited in duration. If not acted upon quickly, information in WM decays. It is also limited in capacity. It’s been suggested that the capacity of WM is 7 plus or minus two items, where items are such meaningful units as weds, letters, numbers, and common expressions.
7
Q
LTM
A
long-term memory (permanent memory)
8
Q
rehearsal
A
a
9
Q
primacy effect
A
recalling best the initial items learned
10
Q
recency effect
A
recalling best the last items learned
11
Q
levels (depth) of processing theory
A
conceptualizes memory according to the type of processing that information receives rather than its location. Different ways to process information (such as levels or depth at which it is processed) exist: physical (surface), acoustic (phonological, sound), semantic (meaning).
12
Q
Three Levels of Levels (Depth) of Processing
A
physical (surface), acoustic (phonological, sound), semantic (meaning).
13
Q
two-store model
A
assumes information is processed first by the sensory register, then by working memory (WM), and finally by long-term memory (LTM)
14
Q
activation level
A
a
15
Q
dichotic
A
relating to or involving the presentation of a stimulus to one ear that differs in some respect (as pitch, loudness, frequency, or energy) from a stimulus presented to the other ear
16
Q
spreading activation
A
means that one memory structure may activate another structure adjacent (related) to it
17
Q
filter (bottleneck) theory
A
incoming information from the environment is held briefly in a sensory system
18
Q
feature-integration theory
A
individuals distribute attention across many inputs, each of which receives low-level processing
19
Q
___________, ____________, and _________ are three aspects of deliberate, conscious cognition.
A
attention, categorization, and memory
20
Q
attention
A
is a limited resource…. is selective because of the bottleneck–only some messages receive further processing…. Learners allocate attention to activities as a function of motivation and self-regulation.
21
Q
Perception
A
refers to attaching meaning to environmental inputs received through the senses.
22
Q
phi phenomenon
A
apparent motion resulting from an orderly sequence of stimuli (as lights flashed in rapid succession a short distance apart on a sign) without any actual motion being presented to the eye
23
Q
Phenomenology
A
the study of the development of human consciousness and self-awareness as a preface to or a part of philosophy
2
a (1) : a philosophical movement that describes the formal structure of the objects of awareness and of awareness itself in abstraction from any claims concerning existence (2) : the typological classification of a class of phenomena
24
Q
Sensory
A
1 Of or relating to the senses or sensation.
2. Transmitting impulses from sense organs to nerve centers; afferent.
25
Gestalt psychology
the essence of this theory is that objects or events are viewed as organized wholes. in the Gestalt view, learning is a cognitive phenomenon involving reorganizing experiences into different perceptions of things, people, or events. This theory postulates that people use principles to organize their perceptions. Some of the most important principles are figure-ground relation, proximity, similarity, common direction, simplicity, and closure.
26
Principle of Proximity
elements in a perceptual field are viewed as belonging together according to their closeness to one another in space or time.
27
Principle of Similarity
Elements similar in aspects such as size or color are perceived as belonging together.
28
Principle of Common Direction
implies that elements appearing to constitute a pattern or flow in the same direction are perceived as a figure.
29
Principle of Simplicity
states that people organize their perceptual fields in simple, regular features and tend to form good Gestalts comprising symmetry and regularity.
30
echoic memory
hearing
31
iconic memory
vision
32
Bottom-up Processing
In this type of processing, physical properties of stimuli are received by sensory registers and that information is passed to working memory (WM) for comparisons with information in long-term memory (LTM) to assign meanings.
33
top-down processing
refers to the influence of our knowledge and beliefs on perception.
34
template matching
theory that holds that people store templates, or miniature copies of stimuli, in long-term memory (LTM)
35
templates
miniature copies of stimuli
36
prototypes
are abstract forms that include the basic ingredients of stimuli.
37
feature analysis
A view/theory; one learns the critical features of stimuli and stores these in long-term memory (LTM) as images or verbal codes.
38
Verbal learning researchers commonly employed three types of learning tasks: _______, _________, and _______.
serial, paired-associate, and free-recall
39
serial learning
people recall verbal stimuli in the order in which they were presented
40
serial position curve
The serial position effect, a term coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list.[1] When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best (the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).[2][3]
41
paired-associate learning
one stimulus is provided for one response item.
42
free-recall learning
learners are presented with a list of items and recall them in any order.
43
Control (executive0 processes
direct the processing of information in WM, as well as the movement of knowledge into and out of WM
44
Rehearsal
repeating information to oneself aloud or subvocally
45
Episodic memory
includes information associated with particular times and places that is personal and autobiographical.
46
Semantic memory
involves general information and concepts available in the environment and not tied to a particular context
47
Declarative memory
involves remembering new events and experiences
48
Procedural memory
is memory or skills, procedures, and languages. Information in procedural memory is stored gradually--often with extensive practice--and may be difficult to describe.
49
contiguity
the quality or state of being contiguous, proximity; contiguous---being in actual contact, touching along a boundary or at a point
50
__________ ________ is content addressable.
Human memory
51
___________ are location addressable.
Computers
52
Encoding
is the process of putting new (incoming) information into the information processing system and preparing it for storage in LTM.
53
proposition
is the smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false.
54
Declarative knowledge
refers to facts, subjective beliefs, scripts, and organized passages.
55
Procedural knowledge
consists of concepts, rules, and algorithms. the knowledge of how to perform cognitive activities.
56
Conditional knowledge
is knowing when to employ forms of declarative and procedural knowledge and why it is beneficial to do so.
57
Schema
is a structure that organizes large amounts of information into a meaningful system. is a large network that represents the structure of objects, persons, and events.
58
Elaboration
is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one knows.
59
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating information over and over
60
elaborative rehearsal
relating the information in something already known
61
ACT theory
ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) network model of LTM with a propositional structure. ACT-R is a model of cognitive architecture that attempts to explain how all components of the mind work together to produce coherent cognition. ACT is an activation theory that specifies that a production system (or production) is a network of condition-action sequences (rules) in which the condition is a set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
62
subject-predicate link
an association in which one node constitutes the subject and another node the predicate
63
relation-argument link
an association where the relation is verb (in meaning) and the argument is the recipient of the relation or what is affected by the relation
64
Elaboration
the process of adding information to material to be learned
65
spreading activation
Spreading activation is a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks. The search process is initiated by labeling a set of source nodes (e.g. concepts in a semantic network) with weights or "activation" and then iteratively propagating or "spreading" that activation out to other nodes linked to the source nodes. Most often these "weights" are real values that decay as activation propagates through the network. When the weights are discrete this process is often referred to as marker passing. Activation may originate from alternate paths, identified by distinct markers, and terminate when two alternate paths reach the same node.
66
production system
is a network of condition-action sequences (rules), in which the condition is the set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
67
functional fixedness
an inflexible approach to a problem
68
activation level
a
69
dichotic
relating to or involving the presentation of a stimulus to one ear that differs in some respect (as pitch, loudness, frequency, or energy) from a stimulus presented to the other ear
70
spreading activation
means that one memory structure may activate another structure adjacent (related) to it
71
filter (bottleneck) theory
incoming information from the environment is held briefly in a sensory system
72
feature-integration theory
individuals distribute attention across many inputs, each of which receives low-level processing
73
___________, ____________, and _________ are three aspects of deliberate, conscious cognition.
attention, categorization, and memory
74
attention
is a limited resource.... is selective because of the bottleneck--only some messages receive further processing.... Learners allocate attention to activities as a function of motivation and self-regulation.
75
Perception
refers to attaching meaning to environmental inputs received through the senses.
76
phi phenomenon
apparent motion resulting from an orderly sequence of stimuli (as lights flashed in rapid succession a short distance apart on a sign) without any actual motion being presented to the eye
77
Phenomenology
the study of the development of human consciousness and self-awareness as a preface to or a part of philosophy
2
a (1) : a philosophical movement that describes the formal structure of the objects of awareness and of awareness itself in abstraction from any claims concerning existence (2) : the typological classification of a class of phenomena
78
Sensory
1 Of or relating to the senses or sensation.
| 2. Transmitting impulses from sense organs to nerve centers; afferent.
79
Gestalt psychology
the essence of this theory is that objects or events are viewed as organized wholes. in the Gestalt view, learning is a cognitive phenomenon involving reorganizing experiences into different perceptions of things, people, or events. This theory postulates that people use principles to organize their perceptions. Some of the most important principles are figure-ground relation, proximity, similarity, common direction, simplicity, and closure.
80
Principle of Proximity
elements in a perceptual field are viewed as belonging together according to their closeness to one another in space or time.
81
Principle of Similarity
Elements similar in aspects such as size or color are perceived as belonging together.
82
Principle of Common Direction
implies that elements appearing to constitute a pattern or flow in the same direction are perceived as a figure.
83
Principle of Simplicity
states that people organize their perceptual fields in simple, regular features and tend to form good Gestalts comprising symmetry and regularity.
84
echoic memory
hearing
85
iconic memory
vision
86
Bottom-up Processing
In this type of processing, physical properties of stimuli are received by sensory registers and that information is passed to working memory (WM) for comparisons with information in long-term memory (LTM) to assign meanings.
87
top-down processing
refers to the influence of our knowledge and beliefs on perception.
88
template matching
theory that holds that people store templates, or miniature copies of stimuli, in long-term memory (LTM)
89
templates
miniature copies of stimuli
90
prototypes
are abstract forms that include the basic ingredients of stimuli.
91
feature analysis
A view/theory; one learns the critical features of stimuli and stores these in long-term memory (LTM) as images or verbal codes.
92
comparative organizers
introduce new material by drawing analogies with familiar material
93
serial learning
people recall verbal stimuli in the order in which they were presented
94
serial position curve
The serial position effect, a term coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list.[1] When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best (the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).[2][3]
95
paired-associate learning
one stimulus is provided for one response item.
96
free-recall learning
learners are presented with a list of items and recall them in any order.
97
Control (executive0 processes
direct the processing of information in WM, as well as the movement of knowledge into and out of WM
98
Rehearsal
repeating information to oneself aloud or subvocally
99
Episodic memory
includes information associated with particular times and places that is personal and autobiographical.
100
Semantic memory
involves general information and concepts available in the environment and not tied to a particular context
101
Declarative memory
involves remembering new events and experiences
102
Procedural memory
is memory or skills, procedures, and languages. Information in procedural memory is stored gradually--often with extensive practice--and may be difficult to describe.
103
contiguity
the quality or state of being contiguous, proximity; contiguous---being in actual contact, touching along a boundary or at a point
104
__________ ________ is content addressable.
Human memory
105
___________ are location addressable.
Computers
106
Encoding
is the process of putting new (incoming) information into the information processing system and preparing it for storage in LTM.
107
proposition
is the smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false.
108
extrinsic cognitive load
is caused by the manner in which the material is presented or the activities required of the learner
109
Procedural knowledge
consists of concepts, rules, and algorithms. the knowledge of how to perform cognitive activities.
110
Conditional knowledge
is knowing when to employ forms of declarative and procedural knowledge and why it is beneficial to do so.
111
Schema
is a structure that organizes large amounts of information into a meaningful system. is a large network that represents the structure of objects, persons, and events.
112
Elaboration
is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one knows.
113
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating information over and over
114
elaborative rehearsal
relating the information in something already known
115
ACT theory
ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) network model of LTM with a propositional structure. ACT-R is a model of cognitive architecture that attempts to explain how all components of the mind work together to produce coherent cognition. ACT is an activation theory that specifies that a production system (or production) is a network of condition-action sequences (rules) in which the condition is a set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
116
subject-predicate link
an association in which one node constitutes the subject and another node the predicate
117
relation-argument link
an association where the relation is verb (in meaning) and the argument is the recipient of the relation or what is affected by the relation
118
Elaboration
the process of adding information to material to be learned
119
spreading activation
Spreading activation is a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks. The search process is initiated by labeling a set of source nodes (e.g. concepts in a semantic network) with weights or "activation" and then iteratively propagating or "spreading" that activation out to other nodes linked to the source nodes. Most often these "weights" are real values that decay as activation propagates through the network. When the weights are discrete this process is often referred to as marker passing. Activation may originate from alternate paths, identified by distinct markers, and terminate when two alternate paths reach the same node.
120
production system
is a network of condition-action sequences (rules), in which the condition is the set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
121
functional fixedness
an inflexible approach to a problem
122
connectionism
connectist models represent computer simulations of learning processes. These models link learning to neural system processing where impulses fire across synapses to form connections. The assumption is that higher-order cognitive processes are formed by connecting a large number of basic elements such as neurons.
123
PDP
parallel distributed process; a model that is useful for making categorical judgments about information in memory
124
_________ are governed by rules. _________ has no set rules.
productions, connectionism
125
encoding specificity hypothesis
the manner in which knowledge is encoded determines which retrieval cues will effectively activate that knowledge
126
Capacity theory of language comprehension
theory stating that comprehension depends on WM capacity and individuals differ in this capacity
127
forgetting
refers to the loss of information from memory or to the inability to access information
128
interference theory of forgetting
theory stating that learned associations are never completely forgotten
129
propositional content
is information that can be judged true or false
130
thematic content
refers to the context which the utterance is made
131
Retroactive interference
occurs when new verbal associations make remembering prior associations difficult
132
proactive interference
refers to older associations that make newer learning more difficult
133
cue-dependent forgetting
cue-dependent forgetting, or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded
134
interference
refers to a blockage of the spread of activation across memory networks
135
mental imagery
refers to mental representations of visual/spatial knowledge including physical properties of the objects or events represented
136
methods of loci
The Method of Loci (plural of Latin locus for place or location), also called the memory palace, is a mnemonic device introduced in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises. The items to be remembered in this mnemonic system are mentally associated with specific physical locations.[1] The method relies on memorized spatial relationships to establish, order and recollect memorial content.
137
dual-code thoery
theory stating that LTM has two means of representing knowledge; a verbal system incorporating knowledge expressed in language and an imaginal system storing visual and spatial information
138
unitary theory
theory stating that all information is represented in LTM in verbal cods (propositions)
139
eidetic imagery
photographic memory
140
advanced organizers
are broad statements presented at the outset of lessons that help top connect new material with prior learning
141
Theory of Meaningful Reception Learning
Learning is meaningful when new material bears a systematic relation to relevant concepts in LTM; that is, new material expands, modifies, or elaborates information in memory.
142
deductive teaching
general ideas are taught first, followed by specific points
143
Expository organizers
provide students with new knowledge needed to comprehend the lesson
144
Concept definitions
state the concept, a superordinate concept, and characteristics of the concept
145
Generalizations
are broad statements of general principles from which hypotheses or specific ideas are drawn
146
comparative organizers
introduce new material by drawing analogies with familiar material
147
conditions of learning
the circumstances that prevail when learning occurs
148
Five Types of Learning Outcomes
intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes
149
intellectual skills
include rules, procedures, and concepts. They are forms of proecdural knowledge or productions.
150
verbal information
(or declarative knowledge) is knowledge that something is the case
151
cognitive strategies
are executive control processes. They include informaiton processing skills.
152
motor skills
are developed through the gradual improvements in the quality (smoothness, timing) of movements attained through practice.
153
attitudes
are internal beliefs that influence actions and reflect characteristics such as generosity, honesty, and commitment to healthy living
154
Internal conditions
are prerequisite skills and cognitive processing requirements; are learners' current capabilities stored in LTM as knowledge.
155
external conditions
are environmental stimuli that support the learner's cognitive processes
156
instruction
is a set of external events designed to facilitate internal learning processes
157
selective perception
means that the sensory registers recognize relevant stimulus features and transfer them to WM
158
semantic encoding
is the process whereby new knowledge is transferred to LTM
159
Reinforcement
refers to feedback that confirms the accuracy of a student's response and provides corrective information as necessary
160
cognitive load
the demands on the information processing system
161
intrinsic cognitive load
depends on the unalterable properties of the information to be learned and is eased only when learners acquire an effective cognitive schema to deal with the information
162
extrinsic cognitive load
is caused by the manner in which the material is presented or the activities required of the learner
163
Essential Processing
refers to cognitive processes necessary to understand the material
164
incidental processing
refers to processing not necessary for learning but which may help to increase understanding
165
representational holding
denotes temporarily holding information in memory while other information is being processed
166
elaboration theory
requires identifying conditions that simplify performance of the task and then beginning instruction with a simple but authentic case
