Science Flashcards
(258 cards)
1
Q
What are the 6 parts of a scientific argument?
A
1) Identify the problem. 2) Ask questions. 3) Formulate a hypothesis. 4) Data collection & experimentation. 5) Analysis. 6) Conclusion
2
Q
What is involved in the data collection of a scientific argument?
A
Observation, measurement, samples, and organization
3
Q
What is involved in the experimentation portion of a scientific argument?
A
Comparing a control group and an experimental group
4
Q
What should the conclusion of a scientific argument support?
A
The hypothesis based on data collection
5
Q
What is deductive reasoning?
A
A method whereby conclusions follow from general principles; leads to a specific conclusion
6
Q
What is inductive reasoning?
A
A method of arriving at general principles from specific facts; Relies heavily on a preponderance of info that leads to a certain degree of confidence
7
Q
Define “Anatomy”
A
The study of the structure of organs and body systems
8
Q
Define “Physiology”
A
The study of the function of the organs and body systems
9
Q
What is the Hierarchy of the structure of the human body (from bottom to top)?
A
Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, & Organism
10
Q
Define “Atoms”
A
The smallest parts of elements that still retain all the original properties of the element
11
Q
What do atoms combine to form?
A
Molecules
12
Q
Define “Cells”
A
The basic unit of all life
13
Q
When cells combine what do they form?
A
When cells combine in terms of function and type they form tissues
14
Q
Define “Organs”
A
Two or more tissue types working together to perform a specific function; Able to complete extremely complex functions
15
Q
Define “Organ System”
A
Organs working together to perform a task
16
Q
How many organ systems are in the human body
A
11
17
Q
Name the 11 organ systems in the human body
A
Circulatory, Digestive, Endocrine, Integumentary, Lymphatic, Muscular, Nervous, Reproductive, Respiratory, Skeletal, & Urinary
18
Q
Define “Organism”
A
Result of all organ systems working together within the body
19
Q
What is the highest level of organization in the human body?
A
Organism
20
Q
What are the 4 basic tissue types in humans?
A
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, & Nervous
21
Q
What are the 2 functions of epithelial tissue in the human body?
A
Provide covering (such as skin tissue) & produce secretions (such as glandular tissue)
22
Q
What are the 2 ways epithelial tissues are classified?
A
Number of cell layers and cell shape
23
Q
Describe simple epithelium tissue
A
Contains one layer of cells; Found in body structures where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur
24
Q
Describe stratified epithelium tissue
A
Has more than one layer of cells; Serves as protection
25
What are the 3 shapes of epithelial cells?
Squamous, Cuboidal, & Columnar
26
Does epithelial tissue have its own blood supply?
No, its dependent on diffusion from the nearby capillaries for food and oxygen
27
Where is connective tissue found?
Throughout the body
28
What is the function of connective tissue?
Serves to connect different structures of the body
29
Does connective tissue have its own blood supply?
Commonly it has its own blood supply; however not in some types, such as ligaments
30
What are the 4 types of connective tissue?
Bone, Cartilage, Adipose (fat), & Blood vessel
31
What is muscle tissue dedicated to?
Producing movement
32
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal, Cardiac, & Smooth
33
What type of movement is supported by the skeletal muscle?
Voluntary movement since it is connected to bones in the skeletal system
34
Define "Voluntary Movement"
Movement that is consciously controlled by the brain
35
What type of control is smooth muscle under?
Involuntary control
36
Define "involuntary control" in terms of smooth muscle
Can't be consciously controlled
37
Where is smooth muscle located in the body?
In the walls of hollow organs, such as intestines, blood vessels, bladder, and uterus
38
What type of movement does cardiac muscle tissue have?
Involuntary
39
Where is cardiac muscle tissue located?
Found only in the heart
40
What does nervous tissue provide structure for?
The brain, spinal cord, and nerves
41
What are nerves made up of and what is their function?
Made up of specialized cells called neurons that send electrical impulses throughout the body
42
What is the function of support cells, such as myelin?
Help protect nervous tissue
43
Define "taxonomy"
Classification of organisms into universally accepted taxons; Names reflect the organism's evolutionary heritage
44
Define "binomial nomenclature"
Two-word naming system that includes the universally accepted genus and species of each organism, developed by Carolus Linnaeus
45
List the hierarchy of the biological classification system from (bottom to top)
Species - Genus - Family - Order - Class - Phylum - Kingdom - Domain
46
Define "Natural Selection"
"Survival of the fittest" Process in which individuals of a species carrying certain mutations are better able to survive & reproduce in their natural environment than other members of the species
47
Define "Adaptation"
Increase from generation to generation of alleles of genes that allows a species to survive in their environment
48
True or False: The action of natural selection is due to the presence of mutations in DNA that are passed on from generation to generation.
True
49
Define a prokaryotic cell
Single-celled organism lacking defined cellular organelles or a nucleus
50
Define "Eukarya"
Organism that contains cellular organelles; Organism that has cells that contain nuclei
51
What type of organisms are protists, plants, fungi, & animals?
Eukarya
52
What parts and organelles make up a prokaryotic cell?
Bacterial flagellum, cell wall, capsule, nucleoid (circular DNA), ribosomes, plasmid, pili, cytoplasm, & plasma membrane
53
Define "cell wall"
Outside, rigid layer that helps separate the inside and outside of both prokaryotic and plant cells
54
Define "flagella"
Long, whip-like structures that project outward from the cell used for cellular movement in certain prokaryotic cells
55
Define "nucleoid"
Condensed DNA of a cell
56
Define "ribosomes"
Organelle responsible for synthesizing protein within the cell from amino acids
57
Define " plasmids"
Small circular portions of DNA not associated with the nucleoid; Contain a small number of genes compared to the DNA in the nucleoid
58
Define "Cytoplasm"
Rich protein fluid with gel-like consistency that houses organelles; Inner layer of prokaryotic cell
59
Define "plasma membrane"
Located inside the cell wall in a prokaryotic cell; It is semipermeable, allowing certain substances in and out of the cell as needed
60
Which type of cell is Bacteria (both Eubacteria & Archaebacteria)?
Prokaryotic
61
What has the most basic type of cells that can exist independently of other cells?
Bacteria (both Eubacteria & Archaebacteria)
62
Define "organelles"
"tiny organs"
63
What is the function of the nucleoid within a prokaryotic cell?
It contains genes & the genetic blueprints for the formation of proteins that make up the machinery of the cell
64
Describe RNA
Copied from the DNA to take the instructions from the nucleoid to the rest of the cell; Chemically similar to DNA
65
Where are the ribosomes located within a prokaryotic cell?
They are very small bodies that are free-floating within the cytoplasm
66
What is the function of ribosomes within a cell?
Manufacture proteins for the cell from the RNA messages
67
What does most of the work within cells?
Proteins, which are manufactured by ribosomes
68
Define "Pili"
Allow communication and transfer of info between 2 cells
69
What has eukaryotic cells?
Eukarya
70
Which cells are more complex, prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
Eukaryotic
71
Which cells are larger, prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
Eukaryotic
72
Do eukaryotic cells live as single cells?
Yes but many exist as part of a larger complex of cells comprising a multicellular organism
73
Describe the plasma membrane in a eukaryotic cell
A semipermeable membrane that envelops the cell and allows certain substances and water in and out
74
Describe the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell
Inside the cell, contains the cell contents and the organelles and is gel-like
75
Do ribosomes function the same in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Yes
76
Define "Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)"
A tubular transport network within the eukaryotic cell; Appears as a stack of flattened membranous sacs
77
What are the 2 types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
Smooth & Rough
78
What is the function of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
Moving proteins from one part of a cell to another and for moving proteins to the outside of a cell
79
Define "Secretion"
Process of moving proteins outside of the eukaryotic cell
80
Describe Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes causing it to have a rough, gritty appearance
81
Describe Smooth ER
Not studded with ribosomes and is important for numerous metabolic processes in the cell
82
Define "Golgi Apparatus"
Composed of layers of membranes and is involved in the packaging and transport of proteins in the cell, including protein secretion
83
What is the function of the golgi apparatus?
It refines proteins that have been manufactured by the ribosomes; It sorts the proteins & prepares them for transport to other parts of the cell or to the cell membrane for secretion; It works hand in hand with the ER in protein mvmt & processing
84
Define "vesicles" in terms of a cell
Small membrane-bounded sacs within the cytoplasm that are used to transport proteins or other substances in or out of the cell
85
What are the 3 common types of vesicles within a cell?
Vacuole, Lysosome, & Peroxisome
86
Define "Vacuole"
A basic storage unit of the cell that can hold various compounds
87
Define "Lysosome"
Contains digestive enzymes that are capable of disposing of cellular debris and worn cellular parts
88
Define "Peroxisome"
Functions to rid the body of toxic components, such as hydrogen peroxide and are also major sites of oxygen use and energy production
89
Why does the liver contain so many peroxisomes?
Toxic substances build up in the liver
90
Describe the Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell; Where ATP is produced; Large, kidney-bean shaped organelle surrounded by membranes; Cristae located inside that have enzymes on them that help convert sugar into ATP to power the cell
91
Define "Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)"
Cellular fuel
92
Define "Cristae (singular: crista)"
Series of folds formed by the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
93
Define "Microtubules"
Cellular tracks that, during mitosis, form the mitotic spindle which help organiz and segregate the chromosomes during cell division
94
Define "Centrosomes"
Microtubule-organizing centers that help to form and organize the mitotic spindle during mitosis
95
Define "Nucleus"
Control center of the entire cell b/c it contains the cell's genetic material and directs all of the activities of the cell. It's a very large organelle in the central portion of the cell that is enclosed by a double membrane w/ pores in it
96
Define "Nucleolus"
A small body within the nucleus that functions to produce ribosomes that get moved to the cytoplasm to make cell proteins
97
How do eukaryotic cells move?
They have either flagella/flagellum (whip-like projections) or cilia (more than a few projections). These structures can beat w/ movements that allow the cells to move
98
Plant cells contain many of the same features as what other cell type?
Eukaryotic cells
99
Define "Chloroplasts"
Organelles that contain chlorophyll; Have many structural similarities to mitochondria, but plant cells need both mitochondria and chloroplasts
100
Define "Chorophyll"
Allows the capture of sunlight to be used for production of glucose during photosynthesis
101
How do vacuoles differ in plant cells vs. eukaryotic cells?
The vacuoles are much larger (that contain water); The cells use the water in the vacuoles to maintain proper cell pressure
102
Describe the cell wall in a plant cell
Solid cell wall that acts as a barrier to the outside and gives structure to the cell
103
Describe the structure of the most basic of cell types, the prokaryotic cell
The nucleoid contains the DNA, the cytoplasm contains the ribosomes and plasmid, and the surface is layered first by the plasma membrane, then the cell wall, and finally the capsule
104
Describe the structure of the more complex cell, eukaryotic cell
The nuclear membrane encases the nucleus (which contains the DNA); The cytoplasm surrounds the ER, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, vacuoles, and lysosomes; and the surface is a cell membrane
105
Describe the structure of a plant cell
Structurally similar to the eukaryotic cell; The 2 main differences btwn these 2 types of cells are that a plant cell has chloroplasts and a cell wall and a eukaryotic cell does not
106
Explain the process of cell differentiation
Differentiation produces a more-specialized cell from a less-specialized cell. The genes of each cell regulate the process of differentiation during all stages of development. Determines what cell type each cell will become. Genes that control it direct each cell when to form the particular proteins and structures that make it a specific cell type. Occurs with cells in the developing embryo but can also occur in adults.
107
Can cells divide and remain undifferentiated?
Yes
108
How is an embryo formed?
A fertilized egg begins dividing and becomes a mass of cells called a zygote
109
What is the most critical stage of development during cell differentiation?
Gastrulation, in which individual tissue layers begin to form
110
Define "Embryo"
Early development of an animal or a plant after fertilization
111
Define "Zygote"
Mass of cells formed after an egg is fertilized and begins dividing
112
Define "Stem Cells"
Can divide and remain undifferentiated; Gives rise to a variety of more-specialized cells
113
What are the 3 types of stem cells?
Totipotent, Pluripotent, & Multipotent
114
Define "Matter"
Anything that takes up space and has mass
115
Define "Mass"
Quantity of matter within an object
116
Define "Element"
Substance that cannot be decomposed by ordinary chemical means; each chemical element is characterized by the # of protons in the nucleus
117
Define "Proton"
Positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom
118
Define "Atomic Number"
Number of protons in the nucleus of the chemical element; the number of protons that defines a specific atom
119
Define "Neutrons"
Neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom
120
Define "Electrons"
Negatively charged subatomic particles found in various orbits around the nucleus
121
Define "Chemical Reaction"
Dynamic event that alters the chemical makeup of a molecule; a process that chemically transforms a set of substances into another set
122
Define "Ion"
Positively or negatively charged atom
123
Define "Mass Number"
Total number of protons and neutrons found within the nucleus of an atom matter anything that takes up space and has mass
124
Define "Atomic Mass"
Number of protons and neutrons within the nucleus of an atom; the average mass of all of the known isotopes of an element
125
When is an atom said to be electrically neutral?
As long as the positive contribution (+1) from each proton in an atom is balanced by the negative contribution (-1) from each electron
126
How are the elements arranged on the periodic table from left to right?
By an increasing number of electrons
127
Define "Orbital Shell"
Arrangement of electrons within a specific region around the nucleus
128
Define "Valence Electrons"
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom
129
Define "ionization energy or ionization potential" & how is it shown on the periodic table?
The energy required to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion; ionization energies increase moving from left to right across a period (decreasing atomic radii); ionization energy decreases moving down a group (increasing atomic radii)
130
Define "electronegativity"
A measure of an atom's attraction on electrons in a chemical bond; the greater the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its attraction for bonding electrons
131
Do elements that have low ionization energies have a low or high electronegativity?
Low electronegativity b/c their nuclei do not exert strong attractive forces on electrons
132
Do elements that have high ionization energies have high or low electronegativity?
High electronegativity due to the strong pull exerted on electrons by the nuclei
133
How is electronegativity shown on the periodic table?
Within a group it decreases as atomic number increases; this is a result of increased distance btwn the valence electron and the nuclei (greater atomic radius)
134
How are the rules of chemical bonding determined?
By an element's location within a given row
135
Define "chemical bonding"
The chemical merging of atoms due to their electron arrangements
136
How are the chemical bonding rules shown on the periodic table?
A transition btwn metals and nonmetals exist from left to right within each row
137
Define "metals"
Elements that donate highly conductive electrons to their environment
138
What happens when each shell becomes filled (or row on the periodic table becomes completed)?
A new shell (or new row) becomes necessary to accommodate elements of higher periods
139
What are the elements called that have properties btwn metals and nonmetals?
Metalloids, which are found next to the stairstep line on the periodic table, are considered to have transitional properties btwn metals and nonmetals
140
How are elements displayed on the periodic table that have similar chemical properties due to having a similar arrangement of outer shell electrons?
In columns (or families)
141
Which elements on the periodic table are electronically stable (resistant to bonding)?
The noble gases (eighth column); due to their full outer shells
142
Regarding physical patterns at standard temperature and pressure, the elements are in the periodic table are dominated by what state?
The solid state as their natural forms
143
How many elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table are identified as gases?
10 elements
144
How many elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table are identified as liquids?
2 (mercury and bromine)
145
What is recognized as the standard of neutrality btwn acids and bases b/c it has a pH value of 7.0?
Pure H2) at 25 deg Celcius
146
What is the pH of battery acid?
pH below 1
147
What is the pH of gastric juice?
pH about 2
148
What is the pH of orange juice?
pH between 3 and 4
149
What is the pH of milk?
pH about 6.5
150
What is the pH of blood?
pH between 7.34 and 7.45
151
What is the pH of hand soap?
pH between 9 and 10
152
What is the pH of bleach?
pH about 12.5
153
What is the calculation of pH based on?
The activity (aH) of hydrogen ions (H+) dissolved in solution
154
What is the pH range of numbers based on?
Logarithmic scale: pH = -log (aH); the negative sign in the formula means that aH must be less than 1
155
Define "pH indicator"
Chemical detector of hydrogen ions to visually determine acidity (color change)
156
What is an example of a pH indicator?
Litmus paper
157
What color does litmus paper, a pH indicator, change to for acidic solutions?
Red
158
What color does litmus paper, a pH indicator, change to for basic solutions?
Blue
159
If the pH of a solution is 9.0, what is the H+ and OH- values?
H+ is 10-9 & OH- is 10-5 (-# is an exponent)
160
What is the pH value when the OH- value is 10-1?
pH is 13.0
161
What is the pH value if the H+ value is 10-9?
pH is 9.0
162
Define "ionic bonds"
The electrical attraction between ions of opposite charges
163
Define "covalent bonds"
Sharing of electrons between atoms
164
What are molecules called when they use both ionic and covalent bonding methods?
Hydrocarbons
165
Name 3 hydrocarbon molecules
Methane, Propane, and Butane; they all bond to hydrogen and carbon atoms
166
What 2 categories are hydrocarbons generally subdivided into?
Saturated and unsaturated
167
Describe saturated hydrocarbons
Also known as alkanes; are the most basic structure of the hydrocarbons; composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated (carbon is completely connected) with hydrogen; formula is CnH2n+2, where n is a whole # greater than or equal to 1; the basis of petroleum fuels
168
How many bonds does saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) have?
Single
169
How many bonds does unsaturated hydrocarbons have?
One or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms
170
Define "alkane"
Hydrocarbon with only single bonds (CnH2n+2)
171
Define "alkene"
Hydrocarbon with one double bond (CnH2n)
172
Define "alkyne"
Hydrocarbon with one triple bond (CnH2n-2)
173
What do unsaturated hydrocarbons permit the attachment of?
Other atoms to the unbonded carbon atoms within the molecule
174
A given formula may possess two or more molecular structures known as what?
Isomers
175
The basis of organic chemistry is connected with the study of what?
Hydrocarbon structure
176
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 1 carbon atom?
Alkane = Methane
177
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 2 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Ethane; Alkene = Ethene; Alkyne = Ethyne
178
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 3 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Propane; Alkene = Propene; Alkyne = Propyne
179
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 4 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Butane Isobutane; Alkene = Butene; Alkyne = Butyne
180
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 5 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Pentane Isopentane; Alkene = Pentene; Alkyne = Pentyne
181
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 6 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Hexane; Alkene = Hexene; Alkyne = Hexyne
182
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 7 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Heptane; Alkene = Heptene; Alkyne = Heptyne
183
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 8 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Octane; Alkene = Octene; Alkyne = Octyne
184
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 9 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Nonane; Alkene = Nonene; Alkyne = Nonyne
185
What is the name of the simple hydrocarbon with 10 carbon atoms?
Alkane = Decane; Alkene = Decene; Alkyne = Decyne
186
Define "metalloids"
Elements that may accept or donate electrons readily, and possess a mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties
187
A metallic ion tends to be what type of ion, cation or anion?
Cation, or positive ion
188
A nonmetallic ion tends to be what, cation or anion?
Anion, or negative ion
189
How do ionic bonds complete one another?
By the donation and acceptance of electrons to form stable outer electron shells
190
Covalent bonding is greatest between atoms of similar what?
Electronegativities, or similar attractions for electrons; often results btwn atoms on the same side of the periodic table
191
Define "Lewis structures"
Symbolic representation of covalent bonding btwn atoms; Atoms are symbolically shown and surrounded by dots that represent each of the valence shell electrons; Dots are arranged such that the molecule is shown to have the atoms in the most completely filled shell configuration of paired electrons
192
Define "products" in chemical reactions
Substances formed as the result of chemical reactions; located on the right side of the reaction sign
193
Define "reactants" in chemical reactions
Substances consumed or altered in a chemical reaction; on the left side of the reaction sign (->) are substances consumed or altered in the chemical reaction
194
What is the goal of balancing a chemical equation?
To make certain that there are equal numbers of each atom on the reactant side and the product side
195
Define "oxidation"
Electron donation by a chemical group that leaves that group with one less electron and a more positive charge
196
Define "reduction"
Electron acceptance by a chemical that produces a more negative charge on the group
197
Define "metabolism" in terms of a chemical reaction
Chemical reactions in living organisms used to maintain life
198
List some examples of oxidation-reduction reactions
Combustion, photosynthesis, and metabolism
199
Acids and bases don't generally undergo oxidation and reduction, what does their reaction produce?
Water and salts, which act to neutralize the pH; acid+ + base- --> salt + water
200
True or False: pH neutralization is an important oxidation-reduction reaction.
False; pH neutralization is an important acid-base reaction
201
True or False: Metabolism is an important oxidation-reduction reaction.
True
202
True or False: Combustion is an important acid-base reaction.
False. Combustion is an important oxidation-reduction reaction
203
True or False: Photosynthesis is an important acid-base reaction.
False. Photosynthesis is an important oxidation-reduction reaction
204
Water is considered what type of molecule?
A polar molecule of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), with oxygen possessing the high electronegativity
205
Define "polar molecule"
A molecule that possesses both positive and negative atomic structure
206
Define "electrolysis"
Use of electric current to drive the breakdown of a molecule
207
When does water reach its maximum density?
4 degrees Celcius
208
Define "density"
The ratio of mass per volume for a substance
209
Define "Celsius"
A metric temperature scale that is defined (at standard pressure) by the melting point of ice (0 deg C) and the boiling point of liquid water (100 deg C)
210
At 4 deg C water is considered a standard value of 1 g/mL, what does this unique property mean?
Ice is less dense than liquid water; therefore, it floats
211
What does the boiling point of water depend on?
Pressure
212
Define "Kelvin"
A metric temperature scale defined by an absolute zero reference point (0 K = -273 deg C)
213
Define "triple-point of water"
The temperature and pressure at which water will coexist as a solid, liquid, and gas (273.16 = 0.01 deg C)
214
Define "heat of vaporization"
The amount of heat necessary to cause a phase transition btwn a liquid and a gas
215
True or False: Water serves as the standard for pH and has a value of 6.
False. Water serves as the standard for pH and has a value of 7
216
True or False: Water is used as the standard density at 4 deg. C
True
217
True or False: Water has the standard electronegative value on the periodic table.
False. No standard for water exists with respect to electronegativity values
218
True or False: The Kelvin temperature scale is based on water's triple-point.
True
219
The liquid to gas transition, through evaporation or vaporization, requires what?
An addition of heat
220
The gas to liquid transition, through condensation, requires what?
A subtraction of heat
221
How is evaporation of a liquid achieved?
Due to the high heat, low humidity, and fast movement of the surrounding air mass
222
How does evaporation occur?
By physical collisions at the surface layer of a liquid, and it acts to remove the faster-moving liquid molecules, thereby removing the more energetic atoms from the liquid; this results in a cooler system
223
Define "phase transition"
An alteration of the physical state btwn a solid, liquid, and gas
224
How does vaporization occur?
Through a phase transition from a liquid to a gas by breaking the physical bonds within the liquid
225
The amount of heat of vaporization (H) necessary for this phase transition depends on what?
The mass (M) and the latent heat (L), or heat per mass needed for a phase change at a constant temp, of the atom; as long as this amount of heat (H) is continually added to the liquid at the boiling point, a hybrid state of liquid and gas will exist until only the gas state remains
226
How does condensation occur?
Through a phase transition from a gas to a liquid by creating physical bonds within the gas
227
The amount of heat of vaporization (H) necessary for this phase transition requires what?
A removal of heat; as long as this amount of heat (H) is continually removed from the gas at the boiling point, a hybrid state of liquid and gas will exist until only the liquid state remains
228
What is the formula for vaporization?
H = M x L
229
What is the formula for condensation?
H = -M x L
230
Defense of Scientific Arguments
Largely dependent on the strength of the data & its analysis; Gains merit after it has been reviewed by experts in the field of science; Over time an argument may lose merit; During the review process any subjective bias (intentional or not) found within the argument must be removed; Is subject to repeatability & if results can't be duplicated, then it loses it credibility; Highest confidence comes with the test of time
231
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
A molecule that exists as a double-stranded helix made from sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases
232
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Single-stranded molecule made from sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases; required for the transfer and translation of the DNA code within a cell
233
Nucleic acids
Chain of nucleotides; job is to store and transmit hereditary info
234
Nucleotide
Molecule that consists of a pentose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
235
Nitrogenous base
Molecule found in DNA and RNA that encodes the genetic information in cells
236
Pentose
Type of sugar
237
Phosphate group
Molecule in the backbone of DNA and RNA that links adjoining bases together
238
Purine
Nitrogenous base with two rings (adenine and guanine)
239
Pyrimidines
Nitrogenous base with one ring (thymine, cytosine, uracil)
240
What are the 5 types of nitrogenous bases?
Adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil
241
Which nitrogenous bases are in both DNA and RNA?
Adenine, cytosine, and guanine
242
Which nitrogenous base is unique to DNA?
Thymine
243
Which nitrogenous base is unique to RNA?
Uracil
244
How is the DNA double helix formed?
Weak bonds are able to form btwn the hydrogen atoms and oxygen or nitrogen atoms btwn bases in the complementary strands of DNA; This kind of weak bond is called a hydrogen bond b/c one partner in the bond is always a hydrogen atom
245
In DNA, what does adenine (A) always pair with?
thymine (T)
246
In DNA, guanine (G) always pairs with?
cytosine (C)
247
Which nitrogenous bases are classified as purines?
adenine and guanine b/c they have two rings
248
Which nitrogenous bases are classified as pyrimidines?
thymine and cytosine b/c the only have one ring
249
What is used as the pyrimidine base for RNA?
uracil
250
What is used as the pyrimidine base for DNA?
thymine
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Explain the differences between DNA and RNA
Pyrimidine bases; Fundamental diff btwn the two nucleic acids of DNA and RNA is their pentose component, which is deoxyribose in DNA & ribose in RNA
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What do both of the nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) include?
The elements of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
253
Describe how DNA, RNA, and ribosomes work hand in hand to produce the proteins necessary for life in cells
The message stored in the bases of DNA must be transferred to the ribsosomes to make proteins; Cells copy the instructions in the DNA into RNA (transcription) & send the messenger RNA to the ribosomes; Proteins are made by ribosomes from the info & sent out to the entire cell
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Translation
The process of protein production from messenger RNA
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Chromosomes
Condensed, single, very long strands of DNA double helix located in the nucleus of a cell and containing hundreds of genes
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Protein
Compound composed of a large number of amino acids joined in a particular type of chemical bond called a peptide bond; Consists of info derived from DNA and RNA; Plays a vital part in the body's functioning
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What presides over protein production?
Chromosomes, genes, DNA, and RNA
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How does information flow within the cell?
From DNA to RNA to proteins
