Scientific Processes Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
Define aims.
A
the thing you want to achieve with your study
2
Q
Define hypothesis.
A
a prediction of what you think will happen during the experiment, that you will test during the research
3
Q
What are the 3 hypothesis types?
A
directional
null
non-directional
4
Q
Define directional hypothesis.
A
make clear the difference between two conditions
5
Q
Define non-directional hypothesis.
A
simply states that there’s a difference between 2 groups but the difference isn’t specified
6
Q
Define null hypothesis.
A
states that there is no difference between the two variables being studied
7
Q
Define operationalise
A
to make a variable measurable
8
Q
Define independent variable.
A
the variable you change in your experiment
9
Q
Define dependent variable.
A
the variable you measure
10
Q
Define extraneous variables
A
‘nuisance’ variables that do not vary systematically with the IV and can often be controlled before the experiment begins but may have an effect on the DV if not controlled
11
Q
Define confounding variables.
A
when the extraneous variables affect the results and change the IV so we can’t be sure as to which aspect of the study had an affect on the DV
12
Q
Define internal validity
A
the extent to which the investigation measures what it intends to measure
13
Q
Define external validity
A
the extent to which the findings can be applied to real life
14
Q
Examples of participant variables.
A
age
gender
intelligence
motivation
15
Q
Examples of investigator variables
A
age
gender
instructions
motivation
intelligence
16
Q
Examples of situational variables.
A
noise
time of day
temperature
17
Q
Define demand characteristics.
A
the way participants react during an experiment is a significant extraneous variable
18
Q
Define randomisation.
A
ensuring participants are allocated to conditions of the IV randomly
19
Q
Define standardisation.
A
where all participants have exactly the same experience from start to finish
20
Q
What are the different types of experimental design?
A
independent groups
repeated measures
matched pairs
21
Q
Define independent groups.
A
two seperate groups experience two different conditions but only take part in one condition and are randomly allocated to these conditions
22
Q
Define repeated measures.
A
all participants experience all conditions
23
Q
Define matched pairs.
A
an independent groups design however, participants are matched together on a variable relevent to the experiment
24
Q
Outline strengths and limitations of independent groups.
A
Strengths:
avoids order effects because they only take part in one condition
Limitations:
requires twice as many people to take part which is a practical concern
may be individual differences between individuals in groups which causes the effect seen
25
Outline the strengths and limitations of repeated measures.
Strengths:
reduce the effect of individual differences
Limitations:
participants have to complete 2 or more conditions so may become bored
26
Outline the strengths and limitations of matched pairs.
Strengths:
there are no order effects
Limitations:
some participant variables may still occur
matched pairs design is time consuming and expensive
27
Define counterbalancing.
a method of control in reasearch methods, half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
28
Define participant variables.
individual differences between participants that might impact the study
29
Define order effect.
the order in which a participant does the conditions may affect the results
30
Define practice effect.
when participants repeat the task they may become better through practice
31
Define validity.
how accurate information is
32
Define reliability.
refers to consistency and whether or not you can repeat the study to get similar results
33
Define Pilot Studies
a small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the investigation is conducted
34
What is the aim of a pilot study?
to check all of the procedures and materials to allow the researcher to iron out any problems and save time and money in the real investigation
35
Define population.
a large group of people you are interested in studying
36
Define sample.
a group of people who take part in aresearch investigation, drawn from the population so assumed to be representatitve
37
What are the 5 types of sampling?
Random, Volunteer, Oppourtunity, Stratified, Systematic
38
Define random sampling.
assigning everyone in the population a number and putting the numbers in a random number generator, generating numbers until you have the amount you want for your sample.
39
Evaluate random sampling.
+ free from researcher bias because they have no influence over who is selected.
- time consuming
- may still be unrepresentative due to probability
40
Define volunteer sampling.
when you put up an advert/poster and people will volunteer themselves for the study.
41
Evaluate volunteer sampling.
+ easy, convenient, requires minimal effort
- volunteer bias because certain people are more likely to volunteer themselves (keen, helpful, curious, so could lead to demad characteristics)
42
Define oppourtinity sampling.
you take whoever you have available to you at that moment that fits the criteria
43
Evaluate oppourtunity sampling.
+ easier and more convenient
- may be unrepresentative because it's drawn from one area
- researcher may be biased in who they choose
44
Define stratified sampling.
the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain sub-groups in the wider population
45
Evaluate stratified sampling.
+ avoids researcher bias
+ provides a representative sample because it reflects the population
- stratification is not always perfect so therefore complete representation isn't always possible
46
Define systematic sampling.
Taking every nth member of the population to be part of the sample
47
Evaluate systematic sampling.
+ avoids researcher bias
+ fairly representative sample
- may not get a truly representive sample which limits generalisability
- more practically difficult
48
Define naturalistic observation
watching and recording behaviour within the setting which it would normally occur
49
Define controlled observation.
watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment where variables can be managed
50
Define covert observation.
participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent
51
Define overt observation.
participants behaviour is recorded and watched with their knowledge and consent.
52
Define participant observation.
the researcher becomes a member of the group who's behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
53
Define non-participant observation.
the researcher remains outside of the group who's behaviour is being watched and recorded
54
Evaluate naturalistic observations.
+ high external validity as findings can be generalised to everday life
- lack of control over situation makes replication difficult
- may be confounding variables
55
Evaluate controlled observations.
+ confounding variables less likely so replication is easier
- findings not as easily generalisable
56
Evaluate covert observations.
+ high internal validity because no demand characteristics
- questionable ethics because people may not wish to have their behaviours noted down
57
Evaluate overt observations.
+ ethically acceptable
- may be demand characteristics
58
Evaluate participant observations.
+ increased external validity
- may lose objectivity due to researcher becoming too involved
59
Evaluate non-participant observations.
+ allow researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance
- may lose valuable insight
60
Define behavioural categories.
when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalised)
61
Define event sampling.
a target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
62
Define time sampling.
a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame eg. every 60 seconds.
63
Define inter-observer reliability.
observers familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories then they all observe the same behaviour at the same time. observers then compare the data recorded and discuss any differences, finally analysing the data collected and calculating a correlation.
64
Evaluate behavioural categories.
+ can make data collection more structured and objective
categories should be exclusive and not overlap
65
Evaluate sampling methods.
+ useful if event happens infrequently
+ reduces the amount of observations that have to be made
- details could be overlooked if event is too complex
- may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
66
Evaluate structured and unstructured observations.
+ structured produce quantitative data
- unstructured produce qualitative data
+ unstructured have more detail
- unstrucured have a greater risk of observer bias
67
Define self-report techniques.
any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions or behaviours and or experiences related to a given topic.
68
Define questionnaires.
a set of written questions used to assess a person's thoughts and/or experiences
69
Define interview.
a 'live' encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts and/or experiences - these questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview plays out
70
Define structured interviews.
made up of pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
71
Define unstructured interviews.
no set questions, just a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed. the interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate on their answers.
72
Define semi-structured interviews.
there is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions based on previour answers
73
Strengths of questionnaires.
- cost-effective
- can be completed without the researcher being present
- data produced is easy to analyse
74
Limitations of questionnaires
- responses may not always be truthful due to social desirability bias
- response bias from always answering the same
75
Evaluate structured interviews.
+ straightforward to replicate
- can't deviate from topic or explain question so data won't be as rich
76
Evaluate unstructured interviews.
+ more flexibility so more insight gained
- increased risk of interviewer bias
- analysis of data not straightforward
77
Define open questions.
questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.
78
Define closed questions.
questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter.
79
How do you write good questionnaire questions?
- avoid overuse of jargon
- avoid emotive language and leading questions
- avoid two-part questions
- avoid double negatives
80
Define correlation.
a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables
81
Define co-variables.
the variables investigated within a correlation
82
Define positive correlation.
as one co-variable increases so does the other
83
Define negative correlation.
As one co-variable decreases so does the other
84
Define zero correlation.
when there is no correlation between the co-variables.
85
What is the difference between correlation and an experiment?
In an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the independent variable in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable. There is no manipulation of variables in correlation therefore you can't establish cause and effect.
86
Strengths of correlation.
- quick and economical to carry out
- no need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables
- useful preliminary tool for research
87
Limitations of correlations.
- studies only tell us how variables are related but not why
- another untested variable may actually be causing the relationship between the co-variables
88
Define ethical issues.
the issues that arise when a conflict exist between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
89
What are the 8 ethical practices?
Deception
Confidentiality
Consent
Observation
Withdraw
Protection
Advice
Debrief
90
Define deception for ethics.
Don't lie to participants, researchers should tell them the aims of the investigation and what is going to happen unless they think this will result in demand characteristics.
91
Define confidentiality.
Participants details should be kept confidential during and after the research. When information is published anything that could be used to identify the participant is anonymised.
92
Define consent.
Participants should give informed consent.
93
Define observation.
You're allowed to observe participants in public places without permission, however private places need consent.
94
What are the 4 ways of dealing with ethical issues?
- BPS code of conduct
- dealing with informed consent
- dealing with deception and protection from harm
- dealing with confidentiality
95
What is the BPS code of conduct?
A set of ethical guidelines that attempt to ensure participants are treated with respect and consideration during each phase of research.
96
How do you deal with informed consent?
participants should be issued a consent letter or form that contains all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate, this is then signed if the participant agrees
97
How do you deal with deception and protection from harm?
At the end of a study participants should be given a fulkl debrief where they are made aware of the true aims of the study and any details that were not supplied during the investigation. They should also be told what their data will be used for and given a right to withdraw their data.
98
How do you deal with confidentiality?
If personal details are recorded then these must be kept private and protected however it is more usual for everything to be anonymised. Participants must be reminded that their data will be kept private during briefing and debriefing.
99
Outline peer review.
the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialised in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
100
State the main aims of peer review.
- to allocate research funding
- to validate the quality and relevance of research
- to suggest amendments or improvements
101
Briefly evaluate peer review.
+ anonymity can produce more honest results
- anonymity can be abused
- publication bias
- burying of groundbreaking theories because they oppose mainstream theories
