SD1 Flashcards
1
Q
STRUCTURE OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT
A
- Lumen
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis propria
- Adevntitia (serosa)
2
Q
MUCOSA
A
- Epithelium
- Lamina propria
- Muscularis mucosae
3
Q
ENTEROCYTE
A
Simple columnar epithelial cells found in small intestine. Specialised for absorption.
4
Q
SUBMUCOSAL/ MEISSNER PLEXUS
A
Collection of nerves containing Dogiel cells with function to enervate cells in epithelial level.
5
Q
MYENTERIC/ AUERBACH PLEXUS
A
Major nerve supply to GI tract & controls GI tract motility.
6
Q
OESOPHAGEOGASTRIC SPHINCTER
A
Prevents reflux of stomach acid in oesophagus.
7
Q
PYLORIC SPHINCTER
A
Controls release of food between stomach and duodenum.
8
Q
ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER
A
Controls smooth muscle between small and large intestine.
9
Q
INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER.
A
Retains faeces in the upper anal canal.
10
Q
PEYER’S PATCHES
A
Organised lymphoid follicles found in lowest part of small intestine used for surveillance of the lumen & immune response from the mucosa.
11
Q
BARRATT’S OESOPHAGUS
A
Disease causing change of epithelium from stratifies squamous to gastric due to repeated damage from acid reflux. Indicates higher risk of cancer. Biopsies taken.
12
Q
ADDITIONAL STOMACH MUSCLE LAYER
A
- Outer longitudinal
- Inner oblique muscle
- Inner circular.
13
Q
MUCOUS CELL
A
Found at the surface of gastric pit in the stomach & produce mucus and bicarbonate to protect stomach from acid digestion.
14
Q
PARIETAL (OXYNTIC) CELL
A
Lower than mucous cells found in gastric gland in Muscularis mucosa produce HCl & intrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor vital for absorption of B12 vitamin.
15
Q
CHIEF (PEPTIC) CELLS
A
Found in gastric pits in stomach & produce enzymes to break down food such as pepsinogen- converted to pepsin.
16
Q
ENTEROENDOCRINE CELL
A
Produce hormones in stomach such as gastrin & serotonin
17
Q
PLICAE CIRCULARES
A
Large valvular flaps within small intestine composed of mucous membrane (mucosa and submucosa). Not obliterated when intestine is distended.
18
Q
PANETH CELLS
A
Large cytoplasmic granules found in small intestine epithelium used to protect from infection.
19
Q
INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER
A
Smooth muscle at the end of the rectum with involuntary control.
20
Q
EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER
A
Skeletal muscle under voluntary control in the anal canal.
21
Q
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
A
Mouth. Oesophagus. Stomach. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum). Large intestine (colon, rectum).
Accessory structures include: salivary glands, teeth, tongue, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.
22
Q
BLOOD MEASUREMENTS
A
6L = 8% of body mass
2/3 of body mass is intracellular fluid (28L)
1/3 of body mass extracellular (14L)
80% of ECF outside cells
23
Q
BLOOD CHARACTERISTICS
A
1.8X thicker than water
38C temp.
Alkaline pH
Colour dependent on O2 content.
24
Q
HAEMATOCRIT
A
The proportion of blood that is cellular.
25
BUFFY COAT
White blood cells and platelets.
26
CELLULAR COMPONENT OF BLOOD
Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophils, Red blood cells, Platelets, Monocytes, Lymphocyte
27
GRANULAR LEUCOCYTE
Neutrophil (40-75%)
Eosinophil (5%)
Basophil (0.5%)
28
AGRANULAR LEUCOCYTE
Lymphocyte (20-50%)
| Monocytes (1-5%)
29
NEUTROPHIL
Leave circulatory system in response to tissue damage. Phagocytose invading organisms with enzymes. Increased in bacterial infection.
30
EOSINOPHIL
Combats effects of histamine and phagocytose antigen antibody complexes.
31
BASOPHIL
Produce heparin, histamine and serotonin. Intensify inflammatory responses
32
LYMPHOCYTE
Immune response produces B, T, natural killer cells. Increased in viral infections
33
MONOCYTES
Phagocytosis, rarely elevated- in tissues called macrophages.
34
PLASMA
91.5% Water, 7% Proteins and 1.5% other salutes (electrolytes, nutrients, gasses, hormones, vitamins)
35
SERUM
Blood plasma minus clotting agent eg in vaccination.
36
OSMORALITY
Concentration of solute within solvent.
37
ALBUMIN
Globular proteins found in blood plasma synthesised in the liver for non-specific transport of non soluble components.
38
GLOBULIN
Proteins found in blood plasma used for selective transport such as sex hormones.
39
FIBRINOGEN
Proteins found in blood plasma used in clotting.
40
TOTAL PLASMA PROTEIN CONCCENTRATION
Affected by change in:
Protein synthesis
Protein removal
Volume in which they are found.
41
EXUDATE
EXTRACELLULAR fluid collection rich in protein and cells. Appears cloudy and found in inflammation (spots).
42
TRANSUDATE
EXTRACELLULAR fluid collection- ultrafiltrate of plasma with little protein. Appears clear and found in swelling.
43
PURULENT EXUDATE
Much like exudate but rich in neutrophils found with parenchyma cells debris. Found with infection (spots).
44
CO-OPERATIVE BINDING
Takes place within RBC- when 1 O2 molecule binds onto Hb it makes it easier for the other 3 o2 to bind.
45
HbA
Adult Hb:
2A and 2B chains.
Some HbF found.
46
HbF
Fatal Hb changed at 7 months.
| 2A and 2Y chains.
47
TOTAL Hb AND O2 IN BLOOD
```
Hb= 150g/L
O2= 197ml/L
```
48
METHAEMOGLOBINEMIA
Blue blood, short of breath, seizures and behavioural issues.
Too much MetHb which does not carry O2 (Fe3+).
49
HAEMOGLOINOPATHY
Alteration in genetically determined molecular structure of Hb such as sickle cell anaemia.
50
RED BLOOD CELL DISTRIBUTION WIDTH- RDW
Index of RBC volumes indicating sizes and populations of cells.
51
STAINED BLOOD FILM
Detects variations in cell sizes and shape. Diagnosies anaemia.
52
RETICULOCYTE COUNT
Indicates excessive RBC. Classifies anaemia.
53
MEAN CELL HAEMOGLOBIN- MCH
Hb level/ RBC count
Measures amount of Hb in each RBC.
Used for patients with iron deficiency.
54
MEAN CORPUSCLE HAEMOGLOBIN CONCENTRATION- MCHC
Approx. 33%
| Can indicate abnormal RBC shapes.
55
WRIGHTS STAIN
Gimsa stain + methylene blue.
| Detects viable cells used in spinal tap.
56
RETICULOCYTE
Immature RBC.
57
MYELOID LINEAGE
RBC, granulocytic cells, megakaryocytes.
58
LYMPHOID LINEAGE
B and T lymphocyte. Start in BM but completed in lymphatic tissue. Used for immune functions and defence mechanisms.
59
PROGENITOR CELLS
Cannot reproduce and are committed to forming blood type.
60
PRECURSOR CELLS
Called blasts- develop into mature formed cells.
61
ERYTHROPOIETIN (EPO)
Released from kidneys to stimulate RBC production.
62
THROMBOPOIETIN- TPO
Released from liver stimulating platelet formation.
63
COLONY STIMULATING FACTORS/ INTERLEUKINS
Stimulate WBC formation.
64
ANAEMIA
More RETICULOCYTE in blood stream.
65
...CYTOSIS
Increased number.
66
...PENIA
Reduced numbers.
67
THROMOCYTOPENIA
Reduced number of platelets. Causes problems with clotting. Treatment of Thrombopoetin- sti,ulating platelet growth.
68
PLURIPOTENT
Having the capacity to develop into more than one cell type.
69
MAST CELL
Generated from common myeloid progenitor. Similar to basophil in shape and size. Used in combatting allergies and characterised by dark blue stain.
70
ORDER OF FREQUENCY OF LEUCOCYTES
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas.
71
DEGRANULATION
Release of toxic enzymes by cytoplasmic granules in neutrophils.
72
NEUTROPHIL EXTRACELLULAR TRAPS
Webs of fibres and enzymes trapping and killing microbes. Must be activated and released by neutrophil.
73
ANGIOGENESIS
Blood vessel generation and remodelling by basophils.
74
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Immunity by antibodies secreted by B-cells.
75
CELLULAR IMMUNITY
Immunity mediated by T lymphocytes.
76
ABO BLOOD GROUPING
A,B,AB,O
Autosomal gene located on chromosome 9.
A&B dominant over O.
77
RHESUS FACTOR
RHESUS +ve express antigen D. Rhesus -ve do not express antigen. Rhesus antibodies- IgG
78
ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS
Haemolytic disease during pregnancy. First pregnancy not affected however 2nd pregnancy anti RH antibodies in mothers blood will cause problem if foetus has Rh+ blood. Foetus gets anaemia.
79
SEROLOGY
Detection of ABO antigens. Blood mixed with different anti-Serra solutions containing antibodies.
80
PLATELETS
Enclosed in plasma membrane, containing organelles but agranular. Known as megakaryocytes. Removed by macrophages in liver spleen.
81
GRANULAR COMPONENTS OF PLATELETS
Clotting factors/ ADP&ATP/ Ca/Serotonin/prostaglandins/lysosomes/ glycogen.
82
PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR (PDGF)
Hormone found in platelets causing proliferation o vascular endothelium, and smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to help repair damaged blood vessel walls.
83
PRIMARY HAEMOSTASIS
Formation of primary platelet plug using vasculature, endothelium and platelets. Happens quickly.
84
SECONDARY HAEMOSTASIS
Formation of fibrin through coagulation cascade to clot blood.
85
VASCULAR SPASM
When damaged smooth muscle cells vasoconstriction to slow down blood loss. Limits blood loss stopping bleeding profusely. Endothelium basement membrane exposed & collagen releases factors for platelet plug.
86
PLATELET PLUG
Primary Haemostasis.
1. Platelet adhesion using Von Willebrand Factor.
2. Platelet release reaction using ADP, serotonin and TA2
3. Platelet Aggregattion using ADP.
87
VON WILBRAND FACTOR
Attaches platelets to blood vessel endothelium in platelet adhesion- primary haemostasis.
88
THROMBOXANE A2
This and serotonin cause vasoconstriction in platelet release reaction of primary haemostasis.
89
THROMBIN
Needs IIb/IIia site for fibrinogen for platelet aggregation- primary haemostasis.
90
CLOT
Network of insoluble protein fibres called fibrin. Solid nature.
91
EXTRINSIC PATHWAY
In Vivo pathway used for blood clotting. Tissue factor created forming clotting factor cascade. Happens in seconds. Forms prothrombinase.
92
INTRINSIC FACTOR
Coagulation in vitro (in blood) forms prothrombinase.
93
PROTHROMBINASE
Common factor of clotting in fibrin for clotting of blood using pathways. Produced from thrombin to make more thrombin (positive feedback). Activates platelets to reinforce aggregation. (Irreversible).
94
PROSTACYCLIN
Prostaglandin produced by endothelium inhibiting platelets sticking and inhibits thromboxane a2 stopping clotting.
95
FIBRINOLYSIS
1. Plasmid
2. Antithrombin 3 with heparin
2. 5 Heparin sulphate
3. Activated protein C (APC)
96
ABNORMAL BLEEDING FACTORS
1. Coagulation factor abscence.
2. Platelet absence.
3. Connective tissue disorder.
97
DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION
Consequence of many disorders releasing procoagulant material causing clots. Results from increased rate of platelet destruction. May be from damage to endothelium. Immature platelets in blood leading to extensive bleeding. From sepsis/surgery/birth.
98
LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS
Hunger centre.
99
VENTROMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS
Satiety centre.
100
LEPTIN
Hunger causing hormone- obesity overproduced this causing overstimulation. Increases neuropeptide Y and decreases melanocortin.
101
NEUROPEPTIDE Y
Increase food intake and reduce energy expenditure.
102
MELANOCORTIN NEURON
From satiety centre and deceased food intake and increases energy expenditure.
103
NUTRITION
Process of nourishing- process by which living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and replacement of tissues.
104
DIET
Usual food and drink a person consumes.
105
DIETETICS
Study of nutrition and how it relates to health.
106
MACRONUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat: energy yielding nutrients.
107
MICRONUTRIENTS
Vitamins, minerals, water.
108
ESTIMATED AVERAGE REQUIREMENTS (EARs)
Estimate of average requirement of energy needed by group of people- 50% fit this.
109
REFERENCE NUTRIENT INTAKES (RNIs)
Amount of nutrient enough to ensure needs of nearly all group-97.5% people meet this.
110
LOWER REFERENCE NUTRIENT INTAKE (LRNIs)
Amount of nutrient needed enough for only small number of people that have requirements-2.5% people
111
SAFE INTAKE
Safe limit of nutrients/ insufficient evidence.
112
CATEGORIES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Simple sugars: monosaccharides/ disaccharides
2. Oligosaccharides (polymers of mono)
3. Polysaccharides: Starch and non-starch.
113
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
3/4 Monosaccharides.
Mostly not digested- fuel for intestinal bacteria and mucosal cells. Found in glycoproteins and lipids
Give you gas.
114
STARCH
Storage for plant CHO
| Made of amylose and amylopectin (branch in every 30th)
115
GLYCOGEN
Main form of glucose in mammalian muscle and liver.
| Similar to amylopectin (10th branch).
116
DIGESTION OF STARCH
Glucose, maltose and isomaltose.
117
GLYCAEMIC INDEX
```
Measure of extent and speed in which CHO are digested and absorbed.
1= rapid digestion
0= slow digestion
Simple sugars- High GI
Plant sugars- low GI
```
118
LIPID
Made up of fatty acids
119
LIPIDS
Made up of fatty acids
120
LIPIDS
Made up of fatty acids
Over 40 found in nature
Categorised into saturated and unsaturated.
121
CIS/TRANS
CIS-nutritionally important
122
CIS/TRANS
CIS-nutritionally important
| TRANS- undesirable in diet- from deep fat frying.
123
TRIACYLGLYCEROL
Found in oils and fats
124
PHOSPHOLIPID
Adipose tissue- major constituents of cell membranes.
125
STEROID
Also sterols, stanols- not metabolically important for source of energy.
126
CLASSIFICATION OFF DIETARY LIPID
1. Triacylglycerols
127
CLASSIFICATION OF. DIETARY LIPID
1. Triacylglycerols
2. Phospholipids
3. Steroids/sterols/stanols
4. Vitamins A,D,E,K
128
NSAIDs
Cox-1 and COX-2 inhibited by Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Help with immune response.
129
HDL
Collect cholesterol from the body's tissues and bring back to liver- good cholesterol.
130
LDL
Carry cholesterol from liver to cells referred to bad cholesterol.
131
VLDL
Carry newly synthesised triaglycerol from liver to adipose tissue.
132
IDL
Intermediate between VLDL and LDL. Not usually detectable in blood.
133
CHYLOMICRONS
Carry triglycerides from intestines to liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue.
134
PROTEIN DIGESTION
1. Endopeptidases hydrolyse proteins to smaller peptides.
| 2. Exopeptidases: hydrolyse. To di- and tri- peptides.
135
LIPID SOLUBLE VITAMINS
A,D,E,K
136
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN
B,H,C
137
VITAMIN A
Found in Eggs/meat/dairy/carrots
138
VITAMIN A
Eggs/Meat/Dairy/Carrots
Used in vision and growth
Deficiency causes colour vision, dark adaption, night blindness.
139
NYCTALOPIA
Night blindness caused by vit A deficiency.
140
XEROPHTHALMIA
Dryness and thickening of the cornea and conjunctiva leading to blindness. Cause of vit a deficiency.
141
VIT A
CHOLECALCIFEROL
142
VITAMIN D
CHOLECALIFEROL
Synthesised by body via UV light. Also formed from cholesterol. Found in cheese/butter/sun
Functions: stimulation of intestinal calcium absorption. Regulation of insulin.
Deficieency is rickets.
143
VITAMIN K
Coagulation factor. Co-factor for four proteins in liver involved in blood coagulation. Deficiency rare in diets but can increase blood clotting.
144
VITAMIN E
Found in cell membranes
Protects membrane lipids from peroxidation
Natural antioxidant.
Hard to have deficiency.
145
HAEMOCYTOMETER
Thick glass microscope, counting chamber,
3x3 divided into nine squares- used for counting white blood cells.
Centre square divided into 25 squares and each square divided into 16 squares.
146
ATP IN GLUCOSE
38 ATP produced most in one glucose molecule.
147
GLYCOLYSIS
Pathway one of carbohydrate metabolism.
Anaerobic process and splits glucose into 2x pyruvate.
Small amount of energy produced- 2ATP and 2NADH.
148
STAGE 1 GLYCOLYSIS
Rearrangement of glucose into Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. (Energy consuming. )
149
GLYCOLYSIS STAGE 2
Converts G-3-P to pyruvate (energy producing. )
150
HEXOKINASE
First step of glycolysis.
| Glucose transformed into G-6-P by ATP.
151
PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE
Step 3 of glycolysis.
Fructose 6 Phosphate transformed into Fructose 1,6, biphosphate using this enzyme.
Uses ATP.
152
PYRUVATE KINASE
Final step of glycolysis.
| Synthesis of of pyruvate releases 2ATP.
153
CORI CYCLE
Pyruvate recycled in the liver from lactate to glucose for muscles.
154
GLUCONEOGENESIS
Takes place in liver when glycogen depleted. Forms glucose from non-CHO precursors.
155
3 ENZYMES USED IN GLUCONEOGENESIS
1. Pyruvate carboxylate & PEP carboxykinase
- changes pyruvate back to PEP
2. fructose 1,6,- biphosphotase.
- changes fructose 1,6 Biphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.
3. Glucose-6-phosphotase.
- changes G-6-P to glucose.
156
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYLE
KREBS CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE
157
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYLE
KREBS CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Mitochondrion
Catalyses pyruvate to CO2.
158
PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE
Enzyme used for entry to TCA cycle. Pyruvate- Acetyl coA(2C).
159
PRODUCTS OF TCA CYCLE
Per cycle:
2CO2
3NADH
1GTP.
160
STEPS OF TCA CYCLE
1. Pyruvate-acetyl co A (2C)
2. Acetyl co A+OAA- citrate (6C)
3. 3 oxidation= NADH and one oxidation= fadh2
4. OAA regenerate and cycle begins again.
161
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Mitochondrial intermembrane space.
Pumping H+ through inner membrane.
5 complexes.
162
COMPLEX I OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
NADH-NAD
| Using CoEnzyme Q: 4H+ moved through.
163
COMPLEX III OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
BEFORE COMPLEX 2
E- from co-enzyme Q transferrred to cytochrome C
4H+ move across membrane.
164
COMPLEX II OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Succinate dehydrogenase move E- to FADH2.
| No protons pumped by E- moved to COMPLEX III
165
COMPLEX IV OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.
CYTOCHROME OXIDASE enzyme drives 2H+ through membrane. Hydrolysis happens here reducing O2 to water.
166
COMPLEX V OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.
ATP SYNTHASE pushes protons through proton channel turning ADP into ATP.
Proton gradient.
167
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
Alternate pathway for glucose when no ATP generated. Produces NADH ffor anabolic processes.
168
OXIDATIVE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
Glucose-6-phosphate ---Ribulose-5-phosphate
Produces 2NADPH and co2
Takes place in liver.
169
NON-OXIDATIVE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
Ribs lose-5-phosphate --- ribose-5-phosphate/ xylose-5-phosphate.
Can be converted into glycolysis intermediates.
170
GLYCOGENESIS
FORMATION OF GLYCOGEN
1. G-6-P ---- G-1-P
2. G-1-P ---- UDP GLUCOSE
3. UDP GLUCOSE ---- GLYCOGEN + UDP. (BRANCHING ENZYME USED )
171
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Glycogen phosphorylase releases G-1-P.
| Debranching enzyme removes branches so G-1-P can enter glycolysis.
172
MCARDLES DISEASES (GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE TYPE V)
Genetic deficiency of muscle glycogen phosphorylase.
| Fatigue, muscle cramps
