Section 2 - The Vine, Growing Environment and Vineyard Management

Question 1

What are the two types of wine species used in modern viticulture?

Answer 1

Vitis vinifera - Main Eurasian species, producing nearly all grapes used in winemaking

American vines (vitis riparia, vitis ruperstris, vitis berlandieri) - Rarely used to produce grapes but resistant to phylloxera. Provides root systems to which vitis vinifera is grafted.

Question 2

What is a shoot?

Answer 2

New growth that a vine produces

Question 3

What is a node?

Answer 3

Leaf or flower / leaf and tendril

Question 4

What is a bud?

Answer 4

Forms where a leaf stem joins the shoot and can be described as embryonic shoots. Once formed, they mature inside their casing during the growing season so that at the end of the year, each bud contains all the structures that will become the shoot, leaves, flowers and tendrils the following year.

Question 5

What purpose do the leaves serve on the vine?

Answer 5

Where photosynthesis takes place. This is the process where the plant uses sunlight to convert water and CO2 into glucose and oxygen.

Question 6

What is the purpose of glucose in the vine?

Answer 6

Glucose is a sugar that supports the vine growth and makes the ripe grapes taste sweet.

Question 7

What are the three functions of glucose?

Answer 7

Vine combines glucose molecules into larger carbohydrates which is a building block for all other vine structures.

Provides energy to the plant when it needs it for other processes

Concentrated in the fruit which attracts animals to propagate the plant

Question 8

What are tendrils?

Answer 8

Structures that the vines use to stay upright.

They wind themselves around the trellis wire to keep the structure upright.

Question 9

What is the purpose of flowers and berries? What are inflorescences?

Answer 9

The vine’s reproductive organs.

Flowers are hermaphrodite (male and female)

Inflorescences are bunches of flowers.

Each flower that is successfully pollinated will become a berry, so eventually each inflorescence will become a bunch of grapes which is harvested at the end of the growing season.

The vine has evolved so that sweet grapes are attractive to animals that eat the grapes and disperse the vine’s seeds.

Question 10

What is one year old wood?

Answer 10

Shoots that turn woody during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, this is one year old wood.

The buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots.

Question 11

Why is managing one year old wood vital for the grape grower?

Answer 11

Vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds that developed the previous year.

Question 12

How does a grape grower manage one year old wood?

Answer 12

Every winter the vine is pruned and the one year old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with. (More detail in later sections)

Question 13

What is a cane?

Answer 13

Long piece of one year old wood with 8-20 buds.

Question 14

What is a spur?

Answer 14

Short piece of one year old wood with only 2-3 buds.

Question 15

What is permanent wood?

Answer 15

Wood which is more than one year old. The wood is made up of a trunk and where present the arms of the vine.

Restricted growth by pruning in the vineyard.

Question 16

What is the purpose of the vine root?

Answer 16

Absorbs the water and nutrients from the soil
Anchors the vine
Stores carbohydrates

In most modern vineyeards, most vinifera are grafted onto root systems from other species which are resistant to phylloxera

Question 17

How do you grow a vine?

Answer 17

Not with seeds

Either through a cutting or layering

Question 18

What is a cutting and how is it used to grow a vine?

Answer 18

A shoot is planted to make a new plant.
This creates an identical plant to the parent.
Main method used in commercial nurseries.

Question 19

What is layering and how is it used to grow a vine?

Answer 19

A cane is bent down into the ground and buried.
The cane tip points out the ground.
The buried section takes root and forms a plant.
The section linked to the new growth is cut.
This creates an identical plant to the parent.

Question 20

What method of growing a vine is used in commercial nurseries?

Answer 20

Cutting

Question 21

What method of growing a vine is avoided by many due to the risk of phylloxera?

Answer 21

Layering

Question 22

What is clonial selection / clones?

Answer 22

Vines that display positive mutations are layered / cut to make new plantings.

Grape growers can order specific clones from the nursery to have a vine with premium fruit / disease resistance.

Question 23

What is cross fertilisation?

Answer 23

Male of one flower transferred to a female of another to fertilise.
This develops into a grape with seeds.

If a seed is planted and grows, it is a new variety as the genetics are different to the parent.
* This applies even if the parents are of the same variety.

Question 24

What are the benefits of cross fertilisation?

Answer 24

New vine varieties created

Question 25

What are the drawbacks of cross fertilisation?

Answer 25

Costly Many fail in the first year 2-3 year wait for survivors to flower and produce grapes Even more time to prove commercial viability

Question 26

What are crossings?

Answer 26

Crossings are new varieties which come from two parents of the same species. This is every grape variety today. The term is more commonly used for varieties bred by researchers.

Question 27

What is an example of a crossing?

Answer 27

Cabernet Sauvignon = Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc Pinotage = Pinot Noir and Cinsault

Question 28

What are hybrids?

Answer 28

Vine variety with parents from different species | Typically one American vine to use as rootstock to prevent against phylloxera

Question 29

What is the difference between a crossing and a hybrid?

Answer 29

Crossing - new variety from two parents of the same species | Hybrid - new variety from parents from different species

Question 30

What is phylloxera and what problems does it cause a vine?

Answer 30

Insect native to North America Vitis vinefera has no defence to this pest 1) Lives under the ground and feeds on the root 2) Infection enters the feeding wound 3) Over the years, the vine is weakened and died

Question 31

Why are American vines resistant to phylloxera?

Answer 31

These vines produce a sticky sap which clogs the mouth of the phylloxera This forms a protective layer behind the feeding wound to protect the vine

Question 32

Where is phylloxera present in the world?

Answer 32

Everywhere with the exception of Chile, Argentina and South Australia

Question 33

How do you treat a vine that is infected with phylloxera?

Answer 33

Quarantine the plant to prevent the spread

Question 34

What is bench grafting?

Answer 34

Automated process carried out in specialist nurseries Cane from vitis vinifera and rootstock variety are joined by machine and stored in a warm place to fuse before the vine is planted

Question 35

What is head grafting?

Answer 35

Vine is cut back to the trunk New bud or cutting is grafted on to produce the next vintage Minimum 3 years from commercial crop to grow This is cheaper and more flexible between vintages than bench grafting

Question 36

What are the 5 things that a vine needs to grow?

Answer 36

1) Heat 2) Sunlight 3) Nutrients 4) Carbon dioxide 5) Water

Question 37

What are the 11 factors which affect the amount of heat that a vine receives?

Answer 37

1) Latitude 2) Altitude 3) Ocean currents 4) Fog 5) Soil 6) Aspect 7) Continentality 8) Diurnal range 9) Winter 10) Spring frost 11) The Growing Season

Question 38

Describe how latitude impacts the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 38

The best latitude is 30-50 degrees north and south of the equator for a vine to grow. Other factors outside of latitude can make an area outside of this range suitable for a vine to grow eg: altitude. Example: All vineyards in Italy.

Question 39

Describe how altitude impacts the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 39

An increase in altitude means that the temperature the vine receives falls. This can mean that locations closer to the equator can sufficiently grow vines. Example: Cafayate in Argentina, the altitude means the vines can grow despite the proximity to the equator.

Question 40

Describe how ocean currents impact the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 40

Ocean currents transport warm or cold water across the surface of the ocean to give a cooling or warming effect Example: Chile and Benguela current off of South Africa cool the hotter regions. The Gulf steam warms NW Europe

Question 41

Describe how fog impacts the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 41

Fog cools areas that struggle to produce high quality grapes. Example: Top vineyards in California and Casablanca Valley in Chile

Question 42

Describe how soil type impacts the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 42

Dark soils and those with high stone and rock content absorb and reradiate more heath than lighter soils. In cooler climates, this can help the grapes ripen. Soil with high water content needs more energy to heat. This also means that heat is conducted more quickly than through dry soils, which can delay budburst.

Question 43

Describe how the aspect of a vineyard impacts the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 43

Vineyards with an aspect towards the equator receive the most heat. Northern hemisphere - vineyards should be south facing. Southern hemisphere - vineyards should be north facing. This is particularly important in cool climates where the extra warmth and steeper slopes make a great difference in the ripening process. Example: Mosel in Germany.

Question 44

Describe how continentality affects the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 44

Continentality is the variation in temperature between the summer and the winter. High continentality = larger variation Low continentality = smaller variation Regions near water tend to have low continentality as they cool and heat more slowly (Mediterranean climates) The continentality of a region determines the length of the growing season which has an impact on heat available to the vine.

Question 45

Describe how diurnal range affects the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 45

Diurnal range is the difference between the day and night temperatures in a region. Large diurnal range regions produce fresher and more aromatic wines than those with a smaller range. Proximity to water reduces diurnal range (vineyard retains heat) Cloud cover means temperatures drop more quickly on clear nights (heat lost) Cool nights = slow loss of aromas and acidity during ripening. (heat lost)

Question 46

Describe how the winter season effects the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give some examples.

Answer 46

Cold air below 0c collects and freezes on a vine. If this occurs on newly burst buds and young shoots, it will kill them. Growers reduce the risk by using: Heaters - keep cold air out Wind machines - draw warm air from above and keep ground level about 0c. Some have heaters. Sprinklers - spray water onto the vine to freeze and release the heat into plant tissue. This protects the buds. Thoughtful vineyard design - plant on slopes away from depressions and train the vines high to avoid frost.

Question 47

Describe how the growing season effects the amount of heat that a vine receives. Give some examples.

Answer 47

Cold spring temperatures delay bud burst and shortens the season as fruit set and flowering are disrupted. Hot summers can slow and stop the vineyard even if there is enough water in supply. This can cause the vine to die.

Question 48

What are the 3 factors which impact the amount of sunlight that a vine receives?

Answer 48

1) Latitude 2) Seas and lakes 3) Aspect

Question 49

Why is sunlight required in a vineyard and for vine growth?

Answer 49

Required for photosynthesis. More light = more photosynthesis = more glucose and ripening of grapes Flowering and fruit set benefit from sunlight

Question 50

Describe how latitude impacts the amount of sunlight that a vine receives. Give an example.

Answer 50

The length of the day is longer, the further from the equator you are. Example: Riesling in Germany.

Question 51

Describe how seas and lakes impact the amount of sunlight that a vine receives.

Answer 51

Vineyards near water have more cloud cover. Central vineyards receive more sunlight. Vineyards near water can have more light reflected within them.

Question 52

Describe how aspect impacts the amount of sunlight that a vine receives.

Answer 52

Facing the equator = more sunlight Steeper slopes = more sunlight Greater distance from the equator = weaker energy from the sun

Question 53

What are the 2 hazards linked to sunlight in a vineyard?

Answer 53

Excessive cloud = slows photosynthesis giving small crops and grapes which taste less ripe Sunburn = Bitter tasting grape skins * The key for grape growers is to maximise canopy management to protect the vine from sunburn but also provide maximum sunlight which it requires to grow.

Question 54

Why is water required for a vine to grow and how does it support the growth?

Answer 54

Needed for photosynthesis and to swell grapes during ripening. 1) Water is drawn from the roots to the leaves through transpiration. 2) The amount of water a vine receives is affected by temperature, the warmer it is, the water quickly evaporates from the leaves more quickly so has to draw more up to compensate. 3) Once the canopy has grown, limiting the water that a vine receives can benefit the vine as it focusses on providing water for grape ripening rather than shoot growth.

Question 55

What are the 2 factors impacting the amount of water that a vine receives?

Answer 55

1) Rainfall | 2) Irrigation

Question 56

Describe the 3 methods which can be used to irrigate a vineyard and the benefits and drawbacks of each.

Answer 56

1) DRIP IRRIGATION 2) SPRINKLERS 3) FLOOD IRRIGATION

Question 57

What are the 3 hazards linked to the amount of water that a vine receives in a vineyard?

Answer 57

1) DROUGHT 2) TOO MUCH WATER 3) HAIL

Question 58

Describe how drought can impact vine growth.

Answer 58

Causes vines to stop transpiration and puts them under water stress. With no photosynthesis the leaves wilt and no grapes ripen. This can kill the vine

Question 59

Describe how too much water can impact vine growth.

Answer 59

- Vine produces too many shoots which gives less sugar in the grapes. With more canopy, there is less sunlight to help ripening. - Water logged roots can cause vine death. Avoid by planting on stoles or installing drainage pipes to aid water flow from root. - Damp increases spread of fungal diseases. - Rain before harvest can cause berries to swell which dilutes the flavour and can make them split, further attracting disease.

Question 60

Describe how hail can impact vine growth.

Answer 60

Destroys the grapes and vines. | Prevent with netting (Mendoza, Argentina)

Question 61

Describe the process of drip irrigation alongside its benefits and drawbacks in controlling the amount of water a vine receives

Answer 61

Most advanced, computer controls a dripper for each vine | Expensive to install and run

Question 62

Describe the process of flood irrigation alongside its benefits and drawbacks in controlling the amount of water a vine receives

Answer 62

Very cheap | Only possible in a flat vineyard/gentle slope where there is access to large quantities of water

Question 63

Describe sprinklers and their benefits and drawbacks in controlling the amount of water a vine receives

Answer 63

Widely used and cheap If well designed, can be used to prevent frost Waste lots of water Can create damp which promotes disease and grey rot

Question 64

What is climate?

Answer 64

The annual pattern of temperature, sunlight and rainfall averaged out over several years. Climate does not change year to year but can change over decades.

Question 65

What is weather?

Answer 65

Annual variation relative to the climatic average. Some regions vary more than others. Example: Bordeaux has more variable rainfall. Example: Central Valley in California is often hot and dry.

Question 66

When is the growing season in the northern hemisphere?

Answer 66

April - October

Question 67

When is the growing season in the southern hemisphere?

Answer 67

October - April

Question 68

How do we class a region's temperature?

Answer 68

Average temperature during the growing season.

Question 69

What temperature is a cool climate?

Answer 69

16.5C and below

Question 70

What temperature is a moderate climate?

Answer 70

16.5C - 18.5C

Question 71

What temperature is a warm climate?

Answer 71

18.5C - 21C

Question 72

What temperature is a hot climate?

Answer 72

21C+

Question 73

What are the 3 climate categories which also factor in continentality, sunlight and rain?

Answer 73

Continental Maritime Meditteranean

Question 74

What is a continental climate? What is it characterised by? What varieties are suited to this climate?

Answer 74

Has the greatest difference in temperatures between the hottest and coldest months (high continentality) Characterised by: Short summers Large temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates are at risk from spring frost, low temperatures affecting flowering, fruit set and ripening eg: Chablis and champagne. This climate is suited to varieties that bud late.

Question 75

What is a maritime climate? What is it characterised by? What varieties are suited to this climate?

Answer 75

Low difference in hottest and coldest months (low continentality) Characterised by: Cool to moderate temperatures Even rainfall throughout the year which means grapes ripen into autumn This climate is suited to thick skinned varieties which struggle to ripen, but can be harmful to flowering, fruit set and health of the grapes at harvest. Example: Martime Bordeaux can ripen Cabernet Sauvignon which may normally struggle at this altitude

Question 76

What is a Mediterranean climate? What is it characterised by? What varieties are suited to this climate?

Answer 76

Low difference in hottest and coldest months (low continentality) Characterised by: Warm and dry summers Low rainfall (be cautious of drought) This climate is suited to varieties that require a lot of heat and sunlight to ripen. Extra warmth and sunlight gives fuller bodied, riper tannins, higher alcohol and lower levels of acidity in wines. Examples: Mediterranean, coastal California, Chile, South Africa and South East Australia

Question 77

What are the 5 factors that affect climate?

Answer 77

1) Altitude 2) Frost 3) Latitude 4) Aspect 5) Cooling effects from the ocean

Question 78

Describe how latitude impacts the climate of a vineyard.

Answer 78

Lower temperatures are present in high altitude vineyards. | Advantageous in areas that are close to the equator.

Question 79

Describe how frost impacts the climate of a vineyard.

Answer 79

Cold air descends and hot air rises | Place the vineyard where cold air can flow away easily to prevent damage to the vine.

Question 80

Describe how latitude impacts the climate of a vineyard.

Answer 80

The sun's energy is more concentrated at the equator. | At the poles, the energy is spread over a wider area.

Question 81

Describe how aspect impacts the climate of a vineyard.

Answer 81

Slopes facing the sun receive the most heat and light. | Slopes receive the most heat and light in their centre.

Question 82

Describe how cooling effects from the ocean impact the climate of a vineyard.

Answer 82

Cool ocean current cool the coastal wine regions. Cool air and fog blow from the shore which enhances the effect. Warm ocean currents have the opposite effect.

Question 83

Why does soil provide a vine with?

Answer 83

Nutrients and water Sits above the bedrock and can be a few cm deep Made up of particles of different size, rocks and humus

Question 84

What are the largest particles in soil?

Answer 84

Stones Not present in all vineyards When on the surface of the vineyard, they can help heat the vineyard

Question 85

What is the smallest particle in soil?

Answer 85

Clay | Holds water

Question 86

What is humus?

Answer 86

Decomposing plant and animal materials | Rich in nutrients with excellent water retention

Question 87

What is the relationship between soil and water for the vine?

Answer 87

Soil provides water which the vine needs for bud growth. | Later it needs mild water stress after verasion to promote grape ripening.

Question 88

What particles in soil store water?

Answer 88

Clay | Humus

Question 89

What is the effect of having too much clay in a soil?

Answer 89

Soil becomes waterlogged

Question 90

What is the effect of having too many stones and lots of sand in soil?

Answer 90

Lots of water drainage which can mean irrigation is necessary for the vine to grow

Question 91

What is the best soil made up of? Why?

Answer 91

Sand + Clay = Loam Good drainage as well as retention however, the best soil does depend on other climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall

Question 92

What are the three most important nutrients in soil for the vine?

Answer 92

NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS POTASSIUM - naturally occur in soil and are taken up into the vine by the roots

Question 93

What happens if there are too many nutrients in a soil?

Answer 93

Vine grows vigorously. This creates a canopy which shades the fruit and the nutrients are depleted. Nutrients then need replacing with natural or chemical fertilisers.

Question 94

What happens if there are not a lot of nutrients in the soil?

Answer 94

Causes chlorosis - Yellow leaves, no ability to photosynthesise - Grapes struggle to ripen and the quality and quantity is reduced Can be fixed with fertilisers