Self and Identity Flashcards
Symbolic Interactionism
Mead (1934) - the self derived from the way others see us - ‘the looking-glass self’
Do people see themselves as others see them?
No. People see themselves as they think others see them (Schrauger & Schoeneman, 1979)
On which dimensions do people have the clearest self-schemas (which dimensions are they ‘schematic’ on?
People are self-schematic on dimensions which are important to them, on which they think they are extreme and on which they believe the opposite does no hold (Markus, 1977)
Self-discrepancy theory
Higgins (1987) - three types of self-schemas - actual, ideal, and ‘ought’. We match our behavior to an ideal or ought standard through self-regulation. Higgins et al. (1986) showed that priming high-discrepancy participants for ideal self standards increased feelings of dejection, whereas priming them for ought standards increased agitation.
Regulatory focus theory
Higgins (1997, 1998) - we have to self-regulatory systems - promotion and prevention, which are meant to pursue different goals. The promotion system is concerned with the attainment of goals and aspirations, adopting ‘approach strategic means’. The prevention system deals with the fulfillment of duties and obligations - oughts, using ‘avoidance strategic means’.
Promotion-focused individuals are especially likely to…
- recall information related to the pursuit of success by others (Higgins & Tykocinsky, 1992)
- are most inspired by positive role models who emphasize strategies for achieving success (Lockwood, Jordan, and Kunda, 2002)
- show elevated motivation and persistence on tasks that are framed in terms of gains (Shah, Higgins, & Friedman, 1998)
Prevention-focused individuals are especially likely to…
- recall information relating to the avoidance of failures by others
- are most inspired by negative role models who highlight strategies for avoiding failure
- exhibit persistence and motivation in tasks which are framed in terms of losses and non-losses
Self-perception theory
Bem (1967, 1972) - we gain knowledge of ourselves by making self-attributions (e.g. we infer our attitudes from our behaviors).
The overjustification effect
In the absence of any obvious external determinants of behavior, people assume they chose to behave that way freely, because they enjoy it (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Why is rewarding sometimes a bad way to motivate?
The provision of external rewards for previously internally motivated tasks ca result in lowered motivation, enjoyment and performance (e.g. Condry, 1977).
Social comparison theory
Festinger (1954): comparing our behaviors with those of others in order to establish the correct and socially appropriate attitudes and behaviors.
Self-evaluation maintenance model
Tesser (1988) - people who are constrained to making esteem-damaging upward comparisons can either underplay or deny similarity with the target, or they can withdraw from the relationship with the target.
Who is more satisfied, the bronze medalist, or the silver medalist?
The bronze medalists (Medvec, Madley, & Gilovich, 1995).
Self-categorization theory
Turner et al. (1987) - an extension of social identity theory - how the process of categorizing oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaniors.
BIRGing
Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini et al., 1976) - name-dropping to link yourself with desirable people or groups and thus improve others’ impressions of you, and your own self-esteem.
The four types of identity as proposed by Brewer (2001).
Person-based social identity, relational social identity, group-based social identity, collective identity.
Evidence for multiple social selves:
- different contextual factors lead people to describe themselves quite differently
- experiments focusing on group membership produce very different results from those focusing on individuality or interpersonal relations
- the minimal group paradigm (Tajfel, 1970; Diehl, 1990)
The metacontrast principle of social identity salience.
The prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of ‘differences to ingroup positions’ to ‘differences to outgroup positions’.
The three self-motives:
self assessment - to seek out new information in order to find out what sort of person we really are
self-verification - seeking out information that confirms what we already know about ourselves
self-enhancement - developing and promoting a favorable self-image
Self-affirmation theory
(Steele, 1988; Sherman & Cohen, 2006) the theory that people reduce the threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their confidence in some other area.
Order the three self-motives by influence/importance.
Seikides (1993):
- self-enhancement.
- self-verification - a distant second
- self-assessment - least important
The self-enhancing triad:
overestimation of one’s good qualities, overestimation of one’s control over events, and unrealistic optimism (Sedikides & Gregg, 2007)
Ways of coping with self-conceptual threats and their health implications.
Escape - removing oneself physically from the situation.
Denial - substance abuse & other risky behavior often resulting in additional health problems.
Downplaying the threat - re-evaluating aspects of the self that have been threatened or reaffirming other positive aspects of the self (Steele, 1988).
Self-expression - reduces emotional heat, headaches, muscle tension and pounding heart, improves immune system functioning (Pennebaker, 1997)
Attack the threat - discredit the basis of the threat, denying one’s responsibility, self-handicapping, seeking professional help.
Is self-esteem a predictor of aggression?
No. Not self esteem per se, but narcissism is a predictor of aggression in individuals (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) and in narcissistic groups - of collective violence (Golec de Zavala et al., in press)
