Self and other

Question 1

Sense of self

Answer 1

awareness of the self as differentiated from other people (distinction between self and other)- very critical for children behaviour basic requirement- can tell the difference between your self and other

Question 2

Individual self

Answer 2

aspects of the self that makes the person unique- a person sees themselves as hard working, physically fit, confident- characteristics of the individual

Question 3

Relational self

Answer 3

aspects of the self that involve connection- you in relation to other people, how you are defined with other people

Question 4

Collective self

Answer 4

concept of self with in a group- all belong to groups and see ourselves as members- gender, race…

Question 5

Ecological self

Answer 5

physical sense of self and ones capabilities. more advances - second yr of life children are still developing an ecological sense of self- developmental differences

Question 6

Ecological self (Shopping cart)

Answer 6

15mo introduced- figure out how to get cart to mother after demonstration- pushes and pushes but does not get closer- in order to solve this they have to have a sense of self- no idea it is her body preventing the cart from moving. 14mo- cannot figure out why it cannot move- tries to climb in 16mo makes a connection to mat but not further to her self. 18mo pushes once then steps off mat- suggests aware of himself and body. 18mo takes a walk to analyse no time to understand that if she is standing it wont move- roles mat- baby humans become aware of themselves only after 18 months of life. adjust something about themselves to find the solution. Themselves standing was what was preventing- requires a way of recognise your own ability and sense of self and that they can get in their own way

Question 7

Development of self awareness

Answer 7

the self is separate from other and the environment- process consciousness- aware of the environment and awareness which is the ability to reflect,

Question 8

Mirror self recognition

Answer 8

A way to test self awareness. the rouge test- a mark is placed on childs forehead- younger than 18mo does not make a connection between itself and the person in mirror- look behind to find stranger. at about 18mo change in awareness- notices red dot and the link between itself and the image in the mirror.

Question 9

Developmental Origins of Self Concept- ages and reactions for mirror recognition

Answer 9

0-1: act as if some other child is behind the mirror; stare at the mirror and don’t touch their own face.
By 2- recognise their own image. almost all will giggle, show embarrassment or act silly at the sight of their own red nose- delay in time and show them a video of putting a sticker 2/3 year olds will not self recognise (limitations)- a time delay is introduced 2/3 year olds will fail to recognise themselves

Question 10

Developing self awareness

Answer 10

Children typically ”pass” the task at 15- to 18-months of age
Independent of children’s mirror exposure and their ability to use a mirror as a tool to search for hidden objects
* Even children from cultures with few/no mirrors show roughly the same developmental trends.- can use a mirror to find objects.
Tied to production of “self-conscious” emotions: shame, guilt, pride, jealousy- only feel these emotions if you feel bad about yourself

Question 11

Mirror self recognition Animal studies

Answer 11

Some non human species can also pass the mirror recognition task
Apes-
Elephants-

Question 12

Developing a sense of self- Autistic Children

Answer 12

Autistic children exhibit deficits in self-recognition- autism affects the ability to develop a sens of self- do not recognise themselves as independent beings- age 3-13 31% failed to recognise themselves in the mirror. Delays in self recognition and if they do recognise themselves do not have a huge emotional response- less proficient in understanding emotions.
Even when autistic children do recognise themselves in the mirror, they demonstrate little emotional response.
Autistic children, in comparison with normal children, show similar neurological responses to their own face, a familiar face, and an unfamiliar face- more indication in having difficulty in developing a sense of self

Question 13

Self-Esteem

Answer 13

the evaluative component of the self that taps how positively or negatively people view themselves in relation to others. am I as good as my friends, am I better than my classmates, am I worse than my neighbours. Global evaluation of individuals worth

Question 14

High self esteem

Answer 14

Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are- low self esteem- inadequacy and inferior
Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those with low self-esteem
High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of positive adjustment outcomes including school success, good relationships with parents and peers, and less anxiety and depression- good performance is as likely to lead to high self esteem as the reverse. Not exactly a cause and effect relationship- can potentially feed into each other.

Question 15

Negatives of high self esteem

Answer 15

High self-esteem may foster experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity and drinking- does not prevent smoking, drinking, early sex- can sometimes increase these activities
High self-esteem can also be related to prejudice and antisocial behaviour- aggressive adolescence who have high self esteem were more likely to belittle victims than aggressive with low self esteem

Question 16

Self-Appraisal

Answer 16

more specific- refers to perceptions and rating of the self in particular areas e.g. as an athlete, as a friend- more specific to certain context areas

Question 17

Learning Self-Appraisal

Answer 17

Children under the age of 8 tend to have unrealistically positive self appraisals- how good they are at something- really good and have high ratings. Children are note entirely inaccurate its just the ratings of themselves are inflated. With age they become less inflated and more realistic (compared to teacher rating)
Self-appraisals become more specific and realistic across development as children incorporate feedback from others
Children also distinguish among different kinds of competence and view themselves as better in some domains than others
Self-appraisals in each domain affects global self-esteem- children with positive self appraisal devote more interest attention and effort given to a particular domain- in return reinforces and feeds back to the self appraisal in that domain e.g. more effort and interest into your studies how that guides and reinforces the self appraisal

Question 18

Social Determinants of Self-Esteem

Answer 18

Family Influences
Peer Influences
Mentor influences

Question 19

Family Influences on self esteem

Answer 19

Children’s higher self-esteem associated with parents who are:
1. Accepting, affectionate and involved with their children
2. Set clear and consistent rules
3. Use noncoercive disciplinary tactics
4. Consider the child’s views in family decisions
(authoritative parents )

Question 20

Influence of Peers on self esteem

Answer 20

children are most influence by peers they are not as close to- they know they are more objective, influences their self esteem

Question 21

Influence of Mentors on self esteem

Answer 21

Mentoring programs have positive effects on self-esteem- But depends on consistency, quality, and duration of the mentoring

Question 22

Praise & Self-Esteem

Answer 22

the way parents and teachers use praise and the effect on self esteem- praise takes 2 forms- 1: person praise- praises the individual for the characteristics they poses (you are so smart so pretty) 2: process praise- praising the effort (you are such a hard worker) praising the effort rather than characteristic
tell a child they are smart and talented- the way they approach is it forms an evaluation of them- when they receive a challenging task they will get nervous because they think if they do not do well people will think negatively of them. Person praise- child consistently receives person praise and come up to challenging task it leads to opting out of difficult task (related to fixed mindset)- reject learning opportunities. Process praise- related to growth mindset- challenges, profiting from mistakes and percevierng from mistakes, more interested in learning. Praising children for pre dispotsitonal leads to less resilience can be seen in toddlers
Praising for effort better

Question 24

Lucca, Horton & Sommerville, 2019

Answer 24

Researchers wanted to know the effects of praise in early life. 18mo- gave infants a difficult task- different geers- had to put the geers and the spindle- difficult because designed for 3 yr olds- made the task harder because they put insetrs into the geers- they would have to take them out then put geers. Told parents to interact with children and do what they normally do at home. Looking to see when parents would praise, what kind and how often. Identified infants trying behaviour- how long, how many geers, what did they do when they failed.
relationship between parental praise and infant trying behaviour- great job trying (recognising effort)- the longer the children would try for. Unique about process praise and is seen in infants.
the more used process praised the harder children tried on the second task- can be applied to a different task as well.

Question 25

Proper Parental ...

Answer 25

They should recognise the effort and work a child puts in - You really stuck to that until you got it. That’s wonderful! - It was a hard project, but you did it one step at a time and it turned out great! - I like how you chose the tough problems to solve. You’re really going to stretch yourself and learn new things. - I know that school used to be a snap for you. What a waste that was. Now you really have an opportunity to develop your abilities more connected to process praise then person praise- more resilient when faced with challenging tasks

Question 26

Promoting self esteem

Answer 26

Effective praise that will promote children’s self-esteem is: 1. Focused on the child’s efforts, not the child’s performance 2. Based on things the child can change (e.g., strategies and progress) rather than things the child cannot change (e.g., intelligence and attractiveness) 3. Specific and sincere, not global or exaggerated

Question 27

Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms

Answer 27

Age 1: understand that people’s actions are intentional and goal directed- recognise when people look at or reach for an object they are interested in the object Joint attention- will look at the same object as someone else 2nd year: can describe scripts for social routines- bed time rituals, what happens when dropped off at child care- foundational understanding of broad social effects Script: a mental representation of an event or situation of daily life including the order in which things are expected to happen and how one should behave in that event or situation

Question 28

Theory of Mind

Answer 28

children’s understanding that people have mental states such as thoughts, beliefs, and desires that affect their behaviour as they grow older they understand other people have these mental states and they do affect behaviour. lead them to think about the unseen states It allows children to get beyond people’s observable actions and appearances and respond to their unseen states

Question 29

Theory of Mind research

Answer 29

other person telling the child their desires and likes are different from the child's. Eat something (cracker) and say eww yuck, ate broccoli said mmmm yums. asks the kid to give her food gives her cracker- younger than 18mo would consistently act like they wanted the same thing. Attributed their desire to researcher. At 2 recognise different wants. Duck rabbit picture- its a duck- anything else?- a goose, researcher tells them it could be a bunny. Explain it might change- even when you explain the 2 interpretations (4yo) have a lot of difficulty and say it does not switch- do not experience multiple representations. 6yo begins to react and talk about switching.

Question 30

Understanding Mental states

Question 31

False belief task

Answer 31

Children are introduced to a character; given a story in which the child knows one thing, but the character believes something else Then asked to predict the character’s actions; if children understand beliefs, they will predict that the character will act on the basis of her beliefs, and not reality child has a different belief than what the character in the story has, the character has a false belief. Beliefs is what draws actions- children will predict on what the character will do with their false beliefs

Question 32

Sally Anne false belief

Question 33

False belief task results

Answer 33

3-year-old children and young 4-year-olds predict: Sally will look in the box (predict she will act on the basis of reality) - do not understand that beliefs are a representation of reality and do not mirror reality Older 4-year-olds predict: Sally will look in the basket (predict she will act on the basis of where she believes the ball to be)- thats her belief Younger children think that beliefs reflect reality whereas older children know that beliefs represent reality, and therefore can be correct or incorrect

Question 34

Understanding false beliefs

Answer 34

* Debate → age of onset in the ability to understand false beliefs * Classic view: ability develops at about age 4 * This development is thought to rely on: * Exposure to mental state talk from parents * Conflicts with siblings and peers- kids with siblings tend to perform better- conflicts because we have different perspectives on an issue Developing inhibitory control abilities (required to inhibit one’s own perspective)- ability to inhibit your current knowledge to reason with what you previously thought Conceptual change in children’s understanding of the nature of the mind- younger children see their mind as reflecting reality but older use it as a representation * Recent evidence suggests that infants might have an implicit understanding of false beliefs * Infants’ eye gaze anticipates an individual will search on the basis of their false belief (not really)- ToM exists before but needs a different way of testing. But recent studies have failed to replicate these findings

Question 35

Reasons for failing false belief task

Answer 35

These tasks often involve at least 3 processes: 1. A false-belief representation process (children must represent the agent’s false belief) 2. A response-selection process (when asked the test question, children must access their representation of the agent’s false-belief to select a response) 3. A response-inhibition process (when selecting a response, children must inhibit any tendency to answer the test question based on their own knowledge)

Question 36

True and False belief in infants

Answer 36

2 conditions- true belief- adult could see location change- false belief- could not see location change. Will infants look longer when adults make a surprising reach (reach for something that is out of expectation. ) infants expected the actors to search where the actors think the toy is 15mo realise others act on the basis of their beliefs- representations that may or may not near reality

Question 37

Social Status

Answer 37

a person's standing or importance in relation to other people within a society.

Question 38

Understanding social groups

Answer 38

Most studies investigating children’s understanding of social status have focused on dominance- Individual A is dominant over B if, when a conflict occurs between them, A is more likely to win than B B is dominant over C A is also dominant over C then Beginning in their 2nd year of life, children form fairly stable and transitive dominance hierarchies Charafeddine et al (2015) investigate children’s ability to identify the “boss” based on different dimensions of dominance: physical supremacy, decision making power, age and resource asymmetry

Question 39

Understanding Group Social Status – Charafeddine et al. (2015)

Answer 39

children ability to identify the boss- saw an interaction between characters and asked them to identify who is the boss. 5 yo good at identifying the cues but not the resource asymmetry. 3 and 4 used age used dimensions of dominance to identify the character is the boss- which character had more resources (resource asymmetry)- none of them used this one

Question 40

Stereotype

Answer 40

label applied to members of a racial, ethnic or religious group that fails to appreciate variability within the group- e.g. girls are bad at math- categorical statement that does not appreciate variability. Can be positive too e.g. tall people are good at basketball. Starts by age 3 - Starts early; by age 3 children see African American faces as angrier than White faces - By about age 5 children show selective memory for stereotyped behaviours in African American individuals - By about age 10, children also become conscious of stereotypes themselves - Can explain negative inter-racial interactions based on discrimination

Question 42

Prejudice

Answer 42

negative attitudes and behaviour towards an individual based on their group status. - having a negative attitude towards women.

Question 44

Children's IAT

Answer 44

adults often deny having biases but IAT shows they exist- adapted the task for children- automatic and not something we are conscious of. Pair white and black faces with good and bad words. Switching parings, stereotype parings and none stereotype parings. Look at how quick children are when the pairings are consistent with the stereotype vs not. if you have IAt between black and bad and white and good you will be faster to respond to those pairings. How much quicker the individual is to respond. Kids, respond quickly in stereotype pairing and slow with not stereotype the will have implicit bias. Implicit bias- slower pairing of positive words to black and faster paring of positive words to fast... look at the developmental projectary positive- faster to pair white and good black with bad, negative score opposite Implicit bias, all age groups show pro white bias. Faster to pair white and good and negative scores would mean the opposite. Present early and does not change across the lifetime decrease overtime in explicit bias

Question 45

Reducing stereotype and prejudice

Answer 45

1. Increase contact between members of different groups; encourage cooperative interactions 2. Have adults emphasize individual characteristics of group members 3. School norms of inclusivity- in a classroom emphasise individual characteristics 4. Minimization of stereotypes and prejudice in books and the media 5. Attitudes are easier to shift than actual behaviour- shift attitudes through interventions