Sememster 2 Final Flashcards
(186 cards)
1
Q
What are two types of transport that can happen in the cell?
A
Active and Passive
2
Q
What is the difference between the two types of cell transport
A
Active requires energy and moves from low concentration to high. Passive does not require energy and moves from high to low concentration
3
Q
What does it mean if there is a concentration gradient
A
There is a difference in concentration from one side of a membrane to another
4
Q
What is the ultimate goal from the cells with regards to cell transport
A
Equilibrium
5
Q
What does it mean when they reach this state
A
Equal concentration on each side of membrane
6
Q
Compare and contrast Passive Transport and Active Transport
A
Examples : Passive : diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion. Active : endocytosis, pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and exocytosis
7
Q
Describe osmosis
A
The diffusion of water
8
Q
Define hypertonic
A
Area outside cell is more concentrated, hypertonic area outside cell is same concentration as cell
9
Q
Describe the level of organization in organisms from smallest to largest
A
Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism
10
Q
Explain where plants get the energy they need to produce food
A
The sun
11
Q
Describe the role of ATP in cellular activities
A
Provides the energy to complete activities
12
Q
What molecule gets broken down during the light reaction of photosynthesis? What is the waste product?
A
H2O breaks down and O2 is the waste product
13
Q
What molecule gets broken down during the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis? What product is made?
A
CO2 is broken down and turned into C6H12O6 (glucose)
14
Q
What are reactants and products of photosynthesis and cellular respiration
A
Photosynthesis : 6CO2 + 6H2O —- C6H12O6 + 6O2
Cellular Respiration : C6H12O6 + 6O2 ——- 6CO2 + 6H2O
15
Q
What is the difference between fermentation and (aerobic) cellular respiration
A
Fermentation occurs in the cytoplasm when there is not enough oxygen for cellular respiration to occur. It only makes 2 ATP. Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria, needs O2 and makes about 36 ATP
16
Q
Describe the cell cycle
A
The life cycle of a cell
17
Q
What happens in interphase
A
G1 growth of the cell —— S DNA synthesis —— G2 cell gets ready for mitosis
18
Q
Describe the purpose of mitosis
A
To divide the cell into two daughter cells. The helps the organism grow and replace worn and damaged cells
19
Q
What are the phases in mitosis
A
Prophase:
The chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be seen under a microscope.
Each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids, containing identical genetic information.
The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2 are together, and so on.
the membrane around the nucleus in the cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
The mitotic spindle, consisting of the microtubules and other proteins, extends across the cell between the centrioles as they move to opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase:
The chromosomes line up along the center (equator) of the cell.
The centrioles are now at opposite poles of the cell with the mitotic spindle fibers extending from them.
The mitotic spindle fibers attach to each of the sister chromatids.
Anaphase:
The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the mitotic spindle which pulls one chromatid to one pole and the other chromatid to the opposite pole.
Telophase:
At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.
A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei.
Cytokinesis The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate daughter cells each containing a full set of chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known as cytokinesis. In plant cells the cell wall does not allow pinching in so a cell plate forms to separate the cell into two new cells
20
Q
A cell entering mitosis with 24 chromosomes will produce how many cells with how many chromosomes in each?
A
2 cells 24 chromosomes
21
Q
Compare and contrast mitosis in animal cells and plant cells
A
Mitosis in animal cells takes place throughout the body. Mitosis in plant cells occurs only in roots and shoots. During cell division, animal cells experience a change in shape, becoming more spherical and symmetrical, whereas plants cells do not experience a change in shape during cell division. Animal cells have centrioles. Animal cells divide by forming a cleavage furrow, plant cells divide by forming a cell plate.
22
Q
How many chromosomes in human somatic cells
A
46
23
Q
What happens when cells lose their ability to control their growth rate
A
Cancer
24
Q
Who discovered the structure of DNA
A
Watson and Crick
25
List the steps of DNA replication
Replication occurs in three major steps: the opening of the double helix and separation of the DNA strands, the priming of the template strand, and the assembly of the new DNA segment. During separation, the two strands of the DNA double helix uncoil at a specific location called the origin. Enzymes are involved and the DNA is semi-conservative meaning one half is the original DNA and the other half is new.
26
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA
DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while RNA is usually single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains ribose. Furthermore, DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. DNA is found only in the nucleus while RNA is in the nucleus and the cytoplasm
27
What are three types of RNA
Messenger RNA, Transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA
28
List the steps of Protein Synthesis
Transcription
DNA double helix unwinds to expose a sequence of nitrogenous bases.
A copy of one of the DNA strands is made. This copy is made of mRNA which travels from the nucleus into the cytoplasm to a ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs.
Translation
mRNA couples w/ ribosome & tRNA brings free amino acids to ribosomes.
Anticodon of tRNA recognizes codon on mRNA.
- Ribosome adds amino acid to growing chain of amino acids
As polypeptide grows, it folds to form a protein and continues to grow until a stop codon is encountered. Then, the ribosome releases the polypeptide (protein).
29
Describe how the mRNA determines the amino acid sequence in a protein. In translation, mRNA interacts with ribosomes in the cytoplasm to read the mRNA sequence and translate each three-nucleotide codon into an amino acid. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid, making mRNA a triplet code. For example, the codon AUG codes for the amino acid methionine.
What is the relationship between DNA, amino acids, and proteins?
The DNA contains the order of nucleotides which makes the codons in mRNA. The codons determines which amino acid to put in which order to create a protein
30
What is the product of a gene?
Proteins
31
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism
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Phenotype
The observable trait that a gene codes for
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Dominant
The allele that is expressed when present
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Recessive
The allele that must be present in two copies in order to be expressed
35
Heterozygous
Having two versions of the same gene
36
Homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a gene
37
Punnet square
A square diagram that predicts the probability of a particular genotype in the offspring of a breeding experiment
38
Complete dominance
The dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele (red + white = red)
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Incomplete dominance
Both alleles of a gene are partially expressed, often resulting in an intermediate or differnt phenotype (red + white = pink)
40
CoDomiance
Two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an indivual (ex red + white = red and white ) and MULTIPLE ALLELES trait has more than two alleles (blood type A, B, AB, O)
41
Describe the purpose of meiosis
To create gametes for sexual production with half the genetic material of the parent cell
42
Gamete
Sex cell
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Somatic cell
Body cell (skin cell, muscle cell)
44
Diploid
(Containing the presence of two complete sets of chromosomes in an orgainsm’s cell, with each parent contributing a chromosome to each pair
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Haploid
A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes
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Crossing over, a cell entering meiosis with 24 chromosomes wil produce how many cells with how many chromosomes in each
2 cells, 12 chromosomes
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How many chromosomes in human sex cells
23
48
Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis produces two identical cells from one cell. Same number of chromosomes diploid. Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells. They are not identical
49
Pedigree
Be able to read a pedigree and figure out genotypes of individuals
-symbols
-generations
50
Karotypes
Be able to read a karyotypes and tell sex of the individual and whether there is a chromosomal abnormality or not
-monopsony
- trisomy
51
What is a species
A group of organisms that can reproduce naturally with one another and create fertile offspring
52
Types of evolution
Convergent and speciation
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Convergent
Occurs when organism that aren’t closely related evolve similar features or behaviors, when exposed to similar environments, divergent different organisms having common ancestors develop different traits or charactestistic to adapt to a differnt environmental condition
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Speciation
When a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristic
55
Darwin
Theory of evolution
56
Comparative anatomy
Study of similarities and differences between organisms
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Homologous structures
Similar in in structure and in origin, but not necessarily in function : the wing of a bird and the foreleg of a horse are homologous
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Analogous structures
Traits in different species that are similar in function but different in structure can indicate convergent evolution
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Vestigial structures
Structures that have no apparent function and appear to be there because a past ancestor used them
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Comparative embryology
The study of development of an embryo from the stage of ovum fertilization through to the fetal stage shows similarities among related organism
61
Comparative biochemistry
Study of differences and similarities in biological or physiological processes among living organisms
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Homeostasis
A state of relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions
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Diffusion
Process by which particles tend to move from an area where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated
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Equilibrium
A state of physical balance
65
Concentration
Gradient, the process of particles, moving from an area with a higher number of particles to an area with a lower number of particles
66
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
67
Phagocytosis
The process in which a phagocyte surrounds and destroy foreign substances
68
Endocytosis
The ingestion of large particles, and the uptake of fluids or macromolecules in small vesicles
69
Active transport
Moving particles from low concentration to high concentration. Requires energy
70
Passive transport
Does not require energy to move substances across the cell membrane
71
Isotonic
When the concentration of two solution is the same
72
Hypertonic
When comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
73
Facilitated diffusion
Process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through cell membrane channels
74
Bulk transport
Type of transport that transports large substance like lipids and food particles
75
Chlorophyll
Principle pigmentation of plants and other photosynthetic organisms
76
Reactants of photosynthesis
Water and carbon dioxide
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Products of photosynthesis
Oxygen and glucose
78
Reactants of cellular respiration
Glucose and oxygen
79
Products of cellular respiration
ATP, carbon dioxide, and water
80
Fermentation
When the body can not produce enough oxygen to fuel the body while performing a task
81
ADP
A nucleotides that are composed of adenosine and two phosphate groups
82
ATP
Compound used by cells to store and release energy
83
Autotrophs
Organisms that eat and produce their own food
84
Thylakoid
Saclike membranes found in chloroplasts, the location of the light dependent reactions
85
Stroma
Fluid portion of the chloroplasts; outside of the thylakoids, location of the light-independent reactions
86
NADP+/NAD
Nicotinamide, adenine dinucleotide phosphate
87
Light dependent reaction
Reactions in plant cells that require oxygen to happen
88
Chloroplast
A substance found in plant cells that is gel-like and absorbs sunlight to help in photosynthesis
89
Anaerobic respiration
Process that does not require oxygen
90
Aerobic respiration
Process that requires oxygen
91
Glycolysis
First set of reactions in cellular respiration during which one molecules of glucose is transformed into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid
92
Krebs cycle
Second stage of cellular respiration in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions
93
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell
94
Unicellular organisms
Organisms with one cell
95
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and other organelles
96
Chromosome
A package of DNA
97
Chromatid
Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA
98
Chromatin
The material of which the chromosomes of organism other than bacteria are composed. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA
99
Centriole
Barrel shaped organelles located in the cytochemistry
100
Prophase
First phase of mitosis where the nuclear membrane splits and the chromatic get made into chromosomes
101
Metaphase
2nd phase of mitosis in which chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers
102
Anaphase
3rd phase of mitosis - the spindle fivers split and go to opposite sides of the cell
103
Interphase
Longest phase in mitosis where the cell prepares to divide
104
Cytokinesis
The physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells
105
Cell plate
A cell plate is a structure that forms when the cytoplasm of a plant cell divides into
106
Cancer
The uncontrolled division of cells
107
Tumor
A tumor is a solid mass of tissue that forms when abnormal cells group together
108
Growth rate
The rate of growth
109
Cell division
The division of a cell into two daughters cells with the same genetic material
110
Spindle fibers
Spindle fibers is a network of filaments that are formed during the cell division process
111
Centromeres
Links a pair of sister chromatids in the center of the cell
112
Stem cells
Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body
113
Differentiation
The action or process of differentiating
114
Specialized cells
A cell that is made for one job to create or help function a certain organ or system
115
DNA
Adeoxyribonucleic acid. The main component of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information
116
Nucleotides
A compound consisting of a sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA
117
Deoxyribose
A sugar found in DNA
118
Nucleic acid
A complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain of
119
Double helix
A structure that looks like a circular staircase. The structure of the DNA molecule
120
Phosphate group
A functional group characterized by a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms
121
Nitrogen base
Nitrogenous compounds that from an important part of the nucleotides
122
Adenine
A compound which is one of the four constituent bases of nucleic acids. A purine derivative, it is paired with thymine in double-stranded DNA
123
Thymine
A compound which is one of the four constituent bases of nucleic acids. A pyramiding derivative, it is paired with adenine in double stranded DNA
124
Guanine
A compound that occurs in guano and fish scales, and is one of the four constituent bases of nucleic acids. A purine derivative, it is paired with cytosine in double-stranded DNA
125
Cytosine
A compound found in living tissue as a constituent bases of nucleic acids. It is paired with guanine in double stranded DNA
126
Structure of DNA
A double helix formed from two complementary strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between G-C and A-T base pairs
127
DNA replication
The process by which the genome’s DNA is copied in cells
128
Transcription
The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA
129
Ribosome
Link amino acids together in the order specified by the codons of messengers of RNA molecules to form polypeptide chains
130
Nucleus
The structure in a cell that contains the chromosomes
131
Cytoplasm
The material of a living cell, excluding the nucleus
132
Translation
The process in living cells in which proteins are produced using RNA molecules as templates
133
MRNA
Polymeric molecule that is essential for most biological functions
134
TRNA
Performs function itself or by forming a template of production for proteins
135
Codon
A sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis
136
Anticodon
A sequence of three nucleotides for ind a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA molecules; corresponding to a complementary codon in messenger RNA
137
Protein synthesis
The biological process whereby amino acids are assembled by peptide bonding into specific sequences in accord with genetic blueprints encoded by DNA
138
Polypeptide
A substance that contains many amino acids
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Uracil
A chemical compound that is used to make one of the buildings rocks of rna
140
Ribose
A sugar that has five carbons atoms and five oxygen atoms in each molecule and is a part of RNA
141
Autosome
One of the numbered chromosomes, as opposed to the sex chromosomes
142
Sex chromosomes
A chromosomes involved with determining the sex of an organism
143
Karyotype
An individual’s complete set of chromosomes
144
Trisomy
The condition known as three bodies. Three chromosomes instead of 2
145
Pedigree
Chart that shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships within a family across several generations
146
Recessive
A trait that is expressed only when the genotype is homozygous
147
Dominant
A trait that is superior to recessive
148
Phenotype
Physical characteristics of an organism
149
Genotype
In a broad sense, the term “genotype” refers to the genetic makeup of an organism
150
Trait
Specific characteristic of an individual
151
Allele
One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome
152
Punnett square
Diagram that can be used to predict the genotype and phenotype combinations of a genetic cross
153
Incomplete
Situation in which one allies is not completely dominant over another allele
154
Multiple alleles
A gene that has more than two alleles
155
Codominance
A type of inheritance in which two versions of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual
156
Gene
A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring
157
Homozygous
Having inherited the same versions of a genomic marker from each biological parent
158
Heterozygous
A term that describes having two different versions of the same gene
159
Sexual reproduction
The production of new living organisms by combining genetic information from two individuals of different types
160
Asexual reproduction
A type of reproduction of new living organisms by combining genetic information from two individuals of different types
161
Meiosis
A type of cell division that results in 4 daughter cells each half with the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
162
Genetics
The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics
163
Fertilization
The action or process of fertilizing an egg, female animal, or plant, involving the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
164
Zygote
A diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes
165
Gametes
A reproductive cell of an animal or plant
166
Sperm cell
The male reproductive cell
167
Egg cell
The female reproductive cell
168
Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence of an organism
169
Darwin
An English scientist who studied nature
170
Natural selections
A mechanism of evolution
171
Artificial selection
An evolutionary process in which humans consciously select for or against particular features in organisms
172
Fitness
An organism’s ability to pass its genetic material to its offspring
173
Geographic isolation
The physical separation from one another due to geographic barriers
174
Vestigial structure
Features of an organism that are considered to have lost much or all of their original function through evolution
175
Homologous structure
Are similar physical features in organisms that share a common ancestor, but the features serve complete different functions
176
Comparative biochemistry
The study of evolutionary relationships or study of difference and similarity’s in biological or philosophical processes among living organism
177
Comparative embryology
The branch of embryology that compares and contrasts embryos of different species showing how mal animals are related to each other
178
Convergent evolution
occurs when organisms that aren’t closely related evolve similar features or behaviors, often as solutions to the same problems
179
Divergent evolution
or divergent selection is the accumulation of differences between closely related populations within a species sometimes leading to speculation.
180
Exocytosis
The process by which cells move material from within the cell into the extracellular fluid
181
Hypotonic
When comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes
182
Structure of ATP
A nucleotide triphosphate, consisting of a nitrogenous base
183
Heterotrophs
Organism that rely on food produced by autotrophs
184
Light independent reaction
Reactions in plant cells that don’t require oxygen to happen
185
Pigments
Light-absorbing molecules used by plants to gather the sun’s energy
186
Telophase
4th phase of mitosis, the last phase where the cell divides into two
