SEMESTER 2 EXAM FLASH CARDS
(197 cards)
1
Q
Dunphy
Stage 1: early adolescent -cliques
A
4-8 members of same sex , isolated groups
2
Q
Dunphy
Stage 2: Development of the crowd
A
Unisex groups start to interact with other groups
3
Q
Dunphy
Stage 3: Unisex groups form heterosexual cliques
A
Forming heterosexual groups, dating occurs in upper-status members
4
Q
Dunphy
Stage 4: Fully developed crowd; heterosexual cliques in close association
A
Heterosexual groups in close association
5
Q
Dunphy
Stage 5: Crowd disintegration
A
Couples break away from the group
6
Q
PET scan
Position emission tomography
A
•PET scans are based on the glucose (sugar) consumption of the brain.
A radioactive tracer that decays by emitting a position is injected in to the body, usually the blood stream.
•Sugar is weakly radioactive and a PET scan can show which areas of the brain are using more energy or consuming more glucose.
•Higher glucose levels reflect higher brain activity
•By placing positron detectors around the brain and picking up the activity, the computer generates pictures based on the metabolic information
•Used alongside MRI as they provide specific information about areas of the brain that can be linked to particular activities such as reading, where there are tumours or damage.
7
Q
FMRI scan
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
A
FMRI is a functional neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled.
8
Q
CAT scan
Computerised axial tomography
A
A type of x-ray that translates the scanned picture into a clear two dimensional image of the brain via the computer.
Scans through 180 degrees and takes a measurement every 1 degree, giving rise to the pictures.
CAT scans aid in the detection of tumours, strokes and other injuries, which can aid in finding out the reasons for changed behaviour and personality
9
Q
MRI scan
Magnetic resonance imaging
A
Uses a strong magnetic field rather than an x-ray to produce an image of the brain. The patient is placed in a magnetic field and is then scanned.
The resulting image is a computer-enhanced three-dimensional picture of the brain (or the body) from which a two dimensional ‘slice’ can be selected and displayed, rotated or enlarged
This enables detection of tumours and other abnormalities, which again can be linked to altered behaviours or personality characteristics.
10
Q
EEG scan
electroencephalography
A
Used when we want to investigate the whole brain rather than parts.
An EEG measures brain waves or electrical activity in the brain
Different patterns or brain waves can indicate problems with the brain such as epilepsy or tumours, as well as being used to describe various types of behaviour such as sleeping and the effects of hypnosis which alter these patterns
11
Q
What are some (3) cultural differences in non-verbal communication:
A
- Facial expressions: Western cultures facial expressions are more severe/ exaggerated than Eastern cultures
- Gestures: In Thailand beckening someone with your palm up is rude, so they do it with their palm down
- Body language: In Middle Eastern countries it is insulting to cross an ankle over a knee and display the sole of the shoe while talking to another person
12
Q
Type of non-verbal communication:
•Touch and smell
A
Smells have the power to conjure up memories and emotions
Eg. Breastfeeding
Cultural variables: in some Asian countries it is not acceptable to breastfeed babies
13
Q
Common obstacles of effective communication:
A
- Being distracted and only listening with ‘half an ear’: The listener may pretend to be listening, giving eye contact and saying ‘uh huh’, ‘really’, etc. at appropriate times but they are really thinking about other things.
- ‘topping’ the speaker: the listener follows the conversation until they have heard something they can top with a better story.
- Being judgemental: saying or implying, ‘you should have known better’ or ‘I told you so’
14
Q
Crowd
A
Larger groups of adolescence (or others) with similar identities or affiliations
Such as Eagles or Dockers supporters at a home game
15
Q
Clique:
A
Small groups who interact frequently
16
Q
Dyad:
A
Pairs of close friends or lovers.
17
Q
Peers
A
People who interact on fairly equal terms, i.e. They have similar status and are usually of similar age and have similar interests
18
Q
Liking definition
A
A feeling of regard or fondness
19
Q
Difference between pro-social and anti-social behaviour
A
Prosocial behaviour is any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society, whereas Anti-social behaviour is any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or a society.
20
Q
What are 3 determinants of liking:
A
- similarity
- proximity
- reciprocity
21
Q
Reciprocity
A
•knowing or thinking someone likes us is enough to make us attracted to them
Eg. Inviting us to their party, being paid a compliment, etc.
22
Q
Relational influence:
•proximity/ propinquity:
A
In order to develop friendships, you have to meet these friends, so physical proximity is essential.
Living close by is a major factor in the development of friendships and longer term relationships.
This is due to 3 factors believed to be linked to physical closeness.
These include:
•familiarity
•availability
•expectation of continued social interaction
23
Q
Relational influences:
Similarity
A
For many friends and couples, there are similarities in their attitudes and values, their dress, their level of education and their views about politics and religion.
Communication between potential friends must take place and this often occurs when mutual attraction has been signalled.
Curiously, mutual attraction is sometimes based on the degree of similarities between people.
24
Q
Group testing
A
Refers to any procedure which breaks up the task of locating elements of a set which have certain properties into tests on subsets(‘groups’) rather than on individual elements.
25
When group testing would be used:
Generally used for mass testing situations or when you are testing to account for a large population.
26
Disadvantages of group testing:
* Examiner= less opportunity to establish rapport, obtain cooperation and maintain interest.
* no one-on-one interaction.
* emotionally disturbed children tend to do worse than in individual tests.
* examinees responses may become restricted
* unable to identify when examinees become anxious or develop feelings of discomfort.
27
Advantages of group testing:
* Administered in large numbers- short time frame
* simplified examiner role
* scoring= more objective than individual testing
* often performed in large groups of representative samples which can often be used and thus can lead to better established norms within the study.
28
Individual testing
Testing done upon an individual rather than a group
29
Disadvantages of individual testing
* takes longer to collect results
* costs more
* requires highly-trained examiners
30
Advantages of individual testing
* examiner able to record measurements of strengths and weaknesses per examinee
* Provide for the examiner to choose items based on the test takers prior responses
* Require more one-on-one interaction
* able to direct focus towards certain examinees
* scores not as dependent on reading abilities as group testing
31
When individual testing would be used:
To assess individual differences, as opposed to accounting for a large sample of the population
32
How is mental age calculated
By the Alfred-Binet scale
33
Limitations of traditional intelligence tests:
* limited measurement
* measure of experience, not biology
* Biased Norms
* inaccurate measurement
34
Galton:
| Theory+explanation of key findings
*General intelligence
•suggested that intelligence was a general ability that changed with environment and can be measured similarly to height and weight
35
Spearman:
| Theory and explanation of key findings
*General intelligence
•Underlined specific mental abilities, which are measured by every task on an intelligence test
•Intelligence is thought to be a combination of both general intelligence (g) and specific intelligence (s)
36
Gardner:
| Theory and explanation of key findings
```
*Multiple intelligence:
•seven intelligences=
1.Linguistic (spoken/written language)
2.Logical (solve problems)
3.Musical (perform music with rhythm/tone/pitch)
4.kinaesthetic (movement of bodily parts)
5.spatial (use of visual images)
6.Interpersonal (understanding others)
7.Intrapersonal (understanding yourself)
```
37
Wechsler:
| -Theory and explanation of key findings
*Modern intelligence testing
•Developed a modern empirical model: He designed Intelligence tests for both adults and children
•His test had 7 sub-tests, which arranged questions from easy to difficult
•focused on both verbal and non-verbal skills
•results can show learning problems and cognitive strengths
38
Binet & simon:
Overview of theory:
(General intelligence testing)
* Created Binet-Simon scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages
* Consisted of 30 tasks of increasing complexity
* Score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age
* aimed for school children with intellectual disabilities
39
Goleman:
| Theory and explanation of key findings
*Emotional intelligence (EQ)
•The ability to express and understand emotions
•A high emotional intelligence can improve an individual's social interactions
40
Terman:
| Theory and explanation of key findings
*IQ- intelligence testing
•Terman revised Binet's work and produced standford-Binet testing, a test to measure a persons intelligence.
•The test used the IQ calculation:
IQ= (mental age/chronological age)x100
41
Binet&Simon- overview of theory
* believed intelligence to be a learned entity
* formed to measure intelligence of children aged 3-12; believed children had a different form of intelligence than adults
* consisted of 30 tasks of increasing complexity
* would reveal child's mental age;then compared with those within their age group to predict which children would struggle and need special help
* scale attempted to create a test which was standardised and would allow for the measurement of a child's intelligence in the present
42
Emotional intelligence
The ability to identify, use, understand and manage emotions in positive ways to relieve stress,communicate effectively, empathise with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict
43
Multiple intelligence
```
•Intelligence actually consists of 7 separate and independent abilities, each of which should be assessed and evaluated separately.
•The 7 intelligences include:
1.Linguistic intelligence
2.Musical intelligence
3.Mathematical-logic intelligence
4.Spatial intelligence
5.Bodily kinaesthetic intelligence
6.interpersonal intelligence
7.intrapersonal intelligence
```
44
Spearman- overview of theory:
* Strongly influenced by Galton
* he too assumed a single general intelligence measure reflected a persons mental capacity.
* supported idea of intelligence testing.
* assumed if you did well at one task (i.e. Reading) you will do well at another (such as language)
* was a combination of general intelligence theory and s.
* spearman's theory often called the 2-factor theory of intelligence
45
Goleman- overview of theory:
Developed argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for work place success in working with emotional intelligence.
[emotional intelligence]
46
Gardner- overview of theory:
•argued that being intelligent involved more than being able to solve problems- it involved being able to produce things that are relevant for particular settings.
•It also involved being able to produce things that are relevant for particular settings
•proposed that instead of one general intelligence, each of us had 7 kinds intelligence.
[Multiple intelligence theory]
=Linguistic,logical,musical,kinaesthetic,spatial,interpersonal,intrapersonal
47
Weschler-overview of theory;
* Designed the Weschler-Bellevue intelligence scale to measure the intellectual performance by adults
* created the Weschler intelligence scales
3 Weschler scales=
•WPPSI
•WISC
•WAIS
[Modern intelligence testing]
48
Non-verbal communication:
* Body language
* Gestures
* Physical distance
* Facial expressions
* Touch and smell
49
Type of non-verbal communication:
•FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
•A powerful form of non-verbal communication and one that is learnt very early in life.
Eg. Smiling
Cultural variables: Western cultures facial-expressions more severe/exaggerated than Eastern cultures
50
Type of non-verbal communication:
•PHYSICAL DISTANCE
•The physical distance we put between ourselves and others convey meaning
Eg. The intimate zone: typical of people in close relationships, such as family members or lovers
•Cultural variables: People of southern European origin usually are comfortable standing closer to people with whom they are talking to than people of Anglo-Saxon origin
51
Type of non-verbal communication
BODY LANGUAGE
•Thoughts, intentions or feelings that are expressed by body behaviours, such as posture and use of space
- eg. Crossing your arms
•Cultural variables: In middle eastern countries it is insulting to cross an ankle over a knee and display the sole of the shoe while talking to another person
52
Type of non-verbal communication:
GESTURES
•A movement of position of the hand, arm, body, head or face that is expressive of an idea, opinion or emotion.
Eg. Beckoning to someone else over with your head or hand.
-Cultural variables: In Thailand beckoning someone over with your palm up is rude, so they do it with their palm down.
53
Effective communication:
* Verbal speech or other methods of relaying information that get a point across.
* An example of effective communication is when you talk in clear and simple terms.
54
How can hormones affect behaviour:
Hormones can affect our body chemistry and lead to changes in how we feel, think and behave
55
How can drugs affect behaviour:
Drugs affect our body chemistry and lead to changes in how we feel, think and behave- these are all altered accordingly depending on which drugs are used.
56
How do adoption studies support both nature and nurture explanations in general:
* If the adoptive child is similar to adoptive parent then this supports nurture
* If the adoptive child is similar to their biological parent then this supports nature
57
How twin studies support genetic explanations in general:
•Identical twins are formed by one egg and one sperm splitting, therefore they have 100% identical DNA. Fraternal twins are from two eggs and two sperm, so have similar DNA to normal siblings. Identical twins that are reared apart show that any differences are from environmental factors (nurture).
58
Define nature vs nurture:
This debate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (eg. genetic) or acquired (eg. Learned) characteristics.
59
Define the stages of cognitive development according to Piaget:
* Sensori motor
* Pre-operational
* Concrete operational
* Formal operational
60
Social development:
Development of normal everyday language and social skills.
61
Emotional development:
The emergence of a child's experience, expression, understanding and regulation of emotions from birth through late adolescence.
62
Describe the physical area of development in regards to the impact of play:
•Developing fine motors skills. Practice of developing motor skills. Promotes participation in sport. Gives a variety of opportunities to develop skills.
63
Describe the cognitive area of development in regards to the impact of play:
•Decision-making is important in developing skills. Anticipation of skill, practise (learning the skill and the stages of the skill) and memory.
64
Effect of physical development on 'Body image' in males:
•More likely to become flexible, assertive and insightful in later life, whereas early maturing boys tend to be more confident and popular in school.
65
Effect of physical development on 'Body image' in Females:
* More likely to be involved with sexual activity, drugs and alcohol than late maturing girls.
* Also demonstrated greater levels of parental conflict and lower grades at school, despite having the same intelligence as late maturing girls.
66
What are Robinson's social skills:
1. Shaking hands
2. Forms/Terms of address
3. Politeness
67
Robinson's social skills:
•Shaking hands (1st social skill)
* Greeting or leaving a social gesture- originates a way of showing you are unarmed.
* It communicates a form of friendship and mutual respect, goodwill or trust.
* Tend to be a more formal setting- a sense of status
* To reject/refuse a handshake is a sign of rudeness
68
Robinson's social skills:
| •how shaking hands can differ in two cultures:
•Muslim women cannot shake hands and may become obsolete in a few decades
•Whereas, Australian women are allowed to, and can, shake hands with both genders.
•Might have a different handshake in different cultures
Eg. Highfive, slap hands or pound.
69
Robinson's social skills:
•Forms/Terms of Address
(2nd social skill)
* While more common for Australians to use first names, it is still recommended that if unsure about status to use formal address.
* i.e. Sir, Madam, Mr or Master.
* Start with a more formal form of address and then move to informal as friendship develops.
70
Robinson's social skills:
| •How formal address can differ in two countries
•Language may be different in different cultures.
| Eg. Don't use 'sir' and use more affectionate slang language to greet a friend.
71
Robinson's social skills:
•Politeness
(3rd social skill)
* Important basic communication as it is a way making sure we display good manners when we talk to others. If we display manners and respect towards others through recognising status, we ensure neither party is embarrassed- 'Hey', 'Could you', 'Would you mind!', -varying depending on status and occasion.
* Negative face or politeness is seen when you make a request seem less imposing. Positive Politeness or face is when we wish to be approved of and liked and do so through the use of direct speech.
72
Robinson's social skills:
| •How politeness can differ in two countries:
* May start conversations with a more 'informal' address- eg. Call teachers by their first name
* Might use more direct forms of speech
* May not use terms like 'excuse me' or wait for a female to enter a room first.
73
Interpersonal relationships:
| Definitions
An association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring.
74
Factors affecting the severity of hearing impairments:
* Age of identification
* Age of intervention
* Severity of loss
* Type of intervention
75
Overcoming the impact of hearing impairments:
| AusLan+cochlear implants
AusLan: Australian sign language
Cochlear implants: An electric medical device that replaces the function of damaged inner ear. Unlike hearing aids, which make louder sounds, cochlear implants do the work of damaged parts of the inner ear (cochlear) to provide sound signals to the brain.
76
The impact of hearing impairment:
* Fewer education and job opportunities due to impaired communication
* Social withdrawal due to reduced access to services and difficulties communicating with others
* Emotional problems caused by a drop in self-esteem and confidence.
77
Hearing impairment:
A hearing impairment is a hearing loss that prevents a person from totally receiving sounds through the ear. If the loss is mild, the person has difficulty hearing faint or distant speech. A person may use a hearing aid to amplify sounds.
78
Internal communication networks within groups:
Transmission of information between organisational members or parts of the organisation.
79
Collaboratively working:
| Definition
Covers a variety of ways that two or more people can work together to achieve a desired result.
80
What to include within a hypothesis:
1. A testable prediction about the direction of interaction between variables
2. The population from which the sample is drawn from
3. The independent variable (that which is manipulated): operationalised, if it is an operational hypothesis.
4. The dependent variable (that which is measured): operationalised, if is an operational hypothesis.
81
Active listening:
* During this form of listening you are engaged in the conversation with the other person and are genuinely interested in what he or she is saying
* You are constantly trying to understand what the speaker is thinking, feeling or wanting before responding with your reply message
* You ask questions of clarification or restate the message received to check understanding
* There is ongoing checking, feedback and replying between listener and speaker
* In communication speakers and listeners alternate their roles
82
Assertive communication:
Honest expression of opinions and feelings in a way that does not infringe on the rights of others
83
Effective communication:
| •Assertive communication:
•Involves honestly expressing opinions and feelings in a way that does not infringe on the rights of others. It is not aggressive.
•Involves 3 main steps:
1.Saying something that shows that you are trying to understanding the other person's position and not trying to pick a fight
2.Stating the problem by stating the dissatisfaction and outlining what you want to change
3.Making a specific statement about what you want to change
84
Differentiate between active and passive listening:
Active listening: requires the listener to feed back what they hear to the speaker, paraphrasing, restating what they heard.
actively listening+trying to understand the information given.
Passive listening: act like a recorder- absorb information but don't ask questions and respond.
85
Effective communication:
| •Active listening
1. Face the speaker and maintain eye contact
2. Pay attention and screen out distractions
3. Listen to the words and work out the meaning of the message
4. Do not interrupt
5. Wait for a pause before asking a question
6. Ask questions only to clarify meaning
7. For long periods of listening, Focus on keywords and issues
8. Give the speaker feedback
9. Pay attention to what is not said (including non-verbal cues)
10. When dealing with difficult people, spend more time listening than speaking
11. Do not be distracted by your biases and views
12. When in doubt, keep listening!
86
Projective testing techniques:
| Definition
An unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issue of concern.
87
Collectivist cultures:
| Definition
Emphasise family and work group above individual needs or desires.
88
Individualistic culture:
| Definition
A society which is characterised by individualism, not collectivism.
89
Culture:
| Definition
The set of ideas,behaviours, attitudes and traditions that exist within large groups of people (usually of a common religion, family or something similar)
90
Social values:
| Definition
The values, beliefs or attitudes held by people in a society which are believed to be important and/or desirable.
91
Social categorisation:
| Definition
The process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics
- can be nationality,age, occupation, diagnosis or some other trait.
92
Selected attention:
•paying attention to some events and activities (stimuli) while ignoring others.
•directs attention purposefully to something new, important or of interest.
Eg. Driving a car requires full awareness of yourself as the driver, of other drivers and of constantly changing road conditions.
93
Divided attention:
•Attending to and undertaking two different activities simultaneously
•where mental effort must be divided between tasks or stimuli, each of which demands more or less.
Eg. When driving a car, we maintain awareness of a number of things.
94
Dishabituation
Occurs when a change in the stimulation is so intense it causes us to pay attention
95
Habituation
* Occurs when predictable and unchanging stimuli fail to command attention
* During habituation, we adjust our attention levels to ignore a repetitive stimulus
Eg. We ignore a clock ticking
96
Social facilitation:
The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks when in the presence of other people
97
Audience inhabition:
•Not helping another person because of a fear of appearing foolish in the presence of others.
98
Describe the social readiness area of development in regards to the impact of play:
Children need to reach certain development stages before they can perform certain skills. Understanding the ability to share in order to interact with others during playtime.
99
Skill development:
| Definition
Developing yourself and your skill set
100
Motor skills:
| Gross + fine motor skills
Gross motor skills= larger movements made with your arms, legs, feet or entire body.
Eg. Crawling, running and jumping.
Fine Motor skills= small movements, such as picking up small objects and holding spoon, that use small muscles in your fingers, toes, wrists, lips and tongue.
101
Social readiness:
| Definition
Concerned with whether children are socially developed enough for certain social situations (eg.schooling) can include factors such as social competence.
102
Communication
The imparting or exchanging of information by speaking,writing or using some other medium.
103
Pro-social behaviour:
* Any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society.
* This behaviour is intentional, that is the helper deliberately tries to provide assistance.
104
Anti-social behaviour:
•Any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society.
Eg. Actions that break laws, rules or social norms concerning personal or property rights of others.
•Core of many anti-social acts is aggression.
105
Anti-social behaviour
| -aggression and explanations
* Psychodynamic
* Ethological
* Biological
* Social learning
106
Pro-social behaviour:
| -Factors influencing helping
* Situational factors
* Social norms
* personal factors
107
Psychological response:
| Definition
Affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and emotional state of a person.
108
Physiological response:
| Definition
An automatic instinctive unlearned reaction to a stimulus.
109
4 Main domains of developmental change:
* Physical
* Social
* Cognitive
* Emotional
110
Describe the emotional domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with.
eg. The way in which anger is expressed by a 2 year old, compared to a 16 year old and 50 year old.
111
Describe the cognitive domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in an individual's mental abilities, such as perception, thinking, learning, memory, language, moral reasoning, problem solving and decision making.
112
Describe the social domain of developmental change:
•Involves changes in an individuals relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others.
Such as the ability to form close relationships and interact with others in a group situation.
113
Describe the physical domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in the body and its various systems, such as development of the brain and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills (movement) and the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause.
114
Racism:
| Definition
Prejudice, discrimination or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that ones own race is superior.
115
3 components of attitudes:
•AFFECTIVE COMPONENT:
Involves a persons feelings/emotions about the attitude object.
•BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT:
The way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave.
•COGNITIVE COMPONENT:
This involves a person's belief/knowledge about an attitude object.
116
Attitude:
A settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
117
Social identity:
Part of our self-concept that is based on our membership in particular groups.
118
Social concept:
Our definition of ourselves or who we consider ourselves to be.
119
Stereotypes:
A form of social categorisation based on what other presume to be shared features.
120
Partin's (1932) stages of play:
1. Unoccupied play
2. Solitary play
3. Onlooker play
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Co-operative or social play
121
Define group:
A number of people or things that are located, gathered or classed together.
122
Social identity theory:
* Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (eg. Social class, family, football team etc.) which people belong to were an important source of pride and self-esteem.
* Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world.
123
Social readiness:
| Definition
Concerned with whether children are socially developed enough for certain social situations (eg. Schooling), can include factors such as social competence.
124
Define group:
A number of people or things that are located, gathered or classed together.
125
Partins (1932) stages of play:
1. Unoccupied play
2. Solitary play
3. Onlooker play
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Co-operative or social play
126
Stereotypes:
A form of social categorisation based on what others presume to be shared features.
127
Social concept:
| Definition
Our definition of ourselves or who we consider ourselves to be.
128
Social identity:
| Definition
Part of our self-concept that is based on our membership in particular groups.
129
Attitude:
A settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
130
3 components of attitudes:
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT: Involves a persons feelings/emotions about the attitude object.
BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT:
The way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave.
COGNITIVE COMPONENT:
This involves a person's belief/knowledge about an attitude object.
131
Racism:
| Definition
Prejudice, discrimination or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that ones own race is superior.
132
Describe the physical domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in the body and its various systems, such as development of the brain and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills (movement) and the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause.
133
Describe the social domain of developmental change:
* Involves changes in an individual's relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others.
* such as the ability to form close relationships and interact with others in a group situation.
134
Describe the cognitive domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in an individual's mental abilities, such as perception, thinking, learning, memory, language, moral reasoning, problem solving and decision making.
135
Describe the emotional domain of developmental change:
Involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with.
eg. The way in which anger is expressed by a 2 year old, compared to a 16 year old and a 50 year old.
136
4 Main domains of developmental change:
* Physical
* Social
* Cognitive
* Emotional
137
Physiological response:
| Definition
An automatic instinctive unlearned reaction to a stimulus.
138
Psychological response:
| Definition
Affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and emotional state of a person.
139
Pro-social behaviour:
| -Factors influencing helping
* Situational factors
* Social norms
* Personal factors
140
Anti-social behaviour:
| -Aggression and explanations
* Psychodynamic
* Ethological
* Biological
* Social learning
141
Anti-social behaviour:
•Any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society.
Eg. Actions that break laws, rules or social norms concerning personal or property rights of others.
•Core of many anti-social acts is aggression.
142
Pro-social behaviour:
* Any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society.
* This behaviour is intentional, that is the helper is deliberately tries to to provide assistance.
143
Communication:
| Definition
The imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing or using some other medium.
144
Dunphy's changing structure of adolescent groups:
1. Early adolescent (cliques)
2. Development of the crowd
3. Unisex groups form heterosexual cliques
4. Fully developed crowd, heterosexual cliques in close association
6. Crowd disintegration
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Social identity theory:
* Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (eg. Social class, family, football team etc.) which people belong to were an important source of pride and self-esteem.
* Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to a social world.
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Smilansky's (1968) areas of play development:
1. Constructive play
2. Dramatic play
3. Pretend play
4. Formal games with rules
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Conductive hearing loss:
* Hearing loss caused by blockage or damage in the outer ear, middle ear or both.
* leads to a loss of loudness.
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Sensori-neural hearing impairments:
* Result of damage to, or a malfunction of, the cochlea (sensory part) or the hearing nerve ( neural part)
* Results in a loss of loudness aswell as a lack of clarity.
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Combined hearing impairments:
Caused by problems in both the conductive pathway (in the outer or middle ear) and in the nerve pathway (inner ear)
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How can exercise affect emotion?
* When you exercise your brain releases endorphins, adrenaline, serotonin and dopamine.
* These chemicals all work together to make you feel good
* Reduction of stress
* Reduction of depression effects
* Positive mental health
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Depressant:
•Example
•How it affects behaviour
* Alcohol
| * Slows down (or depresses) the activity in all parts of the central nervous system.
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Hallucinogen:
•Example
•How it affects behaviour
* Magic mushrooms, cannabis
| * Alter your perception, or sense, of reality- This may result in experiencing hallucinations.
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Stimulants:
•Example
•How it affects behaviour
* Methylamphetamines, Caffeine, amphetamines.
| * Stimulate or excite (make faster) the central nervous system.
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Phineas Gage- Injury and outcomes from his injury:
* He was packing gunpowder into a rock with an iron rod when a spark ignited the gun powder, shooting the rod through his left cheek and out the top of his skull, leaving the front part of his brain skewered.
* He recovered, was able to talk sensibly and soon regained full strength. However, people who knew him said his personality had completely changed.
* Gone from being positive, pleasant and hardworking to loud, impulsive, moody and dishonest
* We now know the front part of the brain that was damaged is important in planning, self-control and personality.
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Example of dynamic picture scan:
PET scan (position emission tomography)
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Example of still picture scan:
CAT scan
| computerised axial tomography
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Example of external recording:
EEG (electroencephalography)
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Methods of investigating brain function:
* CAT (computerised axial tomography)
* MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging)
* EEG (electroencephalography)
* PET (position emission tomography)
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Non-projective testing techniques:
-Self reports:
•Online
•Multiple choice
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The difference between experimental and non-experimental studies:
•An experimental study is when a researcher is able to manipulate the predictor variable and subjects to identify a cause-and-effect relationship.
•Whereas, a non-experimental study is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects.
-Instead they rely on interpretation, observation or interaction to come to a conclusion.
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Differences between Male and Female relationships:
* Male friendships tend to be more 'instrumental' and less emotional, while female friends are much more likely to share emotions and feelings.
* Male friendships are often based on shared activities (eg.poker or golf buddies) and are more 'transactional'- reciprocating favours and working together on projects.
In other words=
•Men share activities
•Women share feelings
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What are physiological responses indicating different states of consciousness (4)?
* Galvanie skin response
* Body temperature
* Heart rate
* Brain waves
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How does body temperature indicate states of consciousness?
In normal states of consciousness, core temperature remains constant
•has a twice daily rhythm related to the need for sleep (slightly higher in afternoon, slightly lower in the morning)
•In some states of consciousness these functions dont work properly- so drunk people are more likely to die of hyperthermia and ecstasy users can of dehydration.
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How does the galvanie skin response indicate states of consciousness?
Sweat glands in skin give off perspiration when we go from relaxed to happy. This changes the skins conductivity, called the GSR, and can be measured as a current.
The GSR, with heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate, make up a lie detector, The machine is based on the assumption that lying causes an alteration in the state of consciousness so the person is more anxious.
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How does heart rate indicate states of consciousness?
Heart rate is an indication of your state of arousal. Usually, the higher the heart rate the more your body is under the influence of the sympathetic nervous system.
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How do brain waves indicate states of consciousness?
The amplitude and frequency of the brain waves indicates if the person is asleep, dreaming, awake and alert or relaxed.
Eg. A low amplitude and a high frequency= excited
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What happens to our bodies when we sleep:
* Muscles remain relaxed through whole period of sleep (muscles)
* When we fall asleep, throat muscles relax so that the throat gets narrower each time we inhale (breathing)
* Body temperature decreases (sweating may occur- as the body is trying to immobilise and combat losing heat)
* Body becomes paralysed, but your brain is its most active
* Individual cells are repaired
* Immune system at all-time high
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Stages of sleep- REM:
* Most people pass through a 5 stage sleep cycle
* 4 of these stages involve non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and the 5th involves REM sleep
* REM sleep is when our vivid dreams occur. It is characterised by rapid eye movements. During REM we have brain-wave patterns similar to those when fully conscious yet muscle movement is suppressed.
* Total proportion of time spent in REM sleep decreases as we get older.
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What are the different forms of consciousness
* Day dreaming
* Meditation
* Hypnosis
* Sleep
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Sleep:
5 stages (4 involving non REM and the 5th being REM)
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* not completely unconscious
* follows a natural rhythm
* Bodies are altered to a biological clock that roughly follows the 24 hours of the day
* Dream whilst asleep
* Without enough sleep we have slower reaction times, difficulty solving problems, feel irritable and act irrationally.
* REM is when we have our most vivid dreams.
* Amount of REM decreases as we get older.
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Daydreaming
* During day dreams attention shifts from external stimuli to internal ones
* Occur in all sorts of settings
* Sometimes we simply escape but often they involve imagining alternative ways to do something we have to do- In this way cause 'mental rehearsal' and can be useful.
* What we daydream or fantasise about will depend on our age or stage of development.
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Meditation
* Techniques used by people to help them relax physically and mentally and achieve inner calmness
* 2 best known forms: Yoga and transcendental meditation
* Individual usually sits in a comfortable position with eyes closed to block distractions
* Key= focus on one thing eg. Breathing and ignoring everyone else
* During meditation breathing and heart rate slows + muscle tension and pressure reduces.
* therapeutic value for many who suffer from anxiety
* experience of pain=greatly reduced while in a meditative state.
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Hypnosis:
* Results in sleep-like relaxation
* Often therapy to access thoughts and memories
* Patient fixes eyes on specific place (eg.spot on wall) while a hypnotist or psychologist quietly makes suggestions to induce complete relaxation. Once patient is relaxed, hypnotist makes other suggestions that will cause thoughts or behaviours differing from what you would expect from a fully conscious person.
* Artificially induced state of relaxation
* Hypnotised will read to thing differently to a conscious person.
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Drug-induced states:
* Thought processes are disorganised
* Sensations or perceptions are dulled or heightened
* Memory impaired
* More/less/inappropriate emotional reactions
* Distorted perception of time
* Lack of self control
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Consciousness definition:
Refers to your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations and environment.
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Brain stem:
•Responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heart beat and blood pressure.
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Corpus Callosum:
* Referred to as a 'bridge' that connects the 2 hemispheres and serves the main communication pathway
* Functions as a 'cross over station' for neutral messages between two cerebral hemispheres.
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Cerebellum:
* Balance and coordination
* Important in controlling voluntary movement
* Concerned with all higher mental functions, such as thinking and memory.
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Occipital lobe:
* Vision
* Processes visual information
* Also contains association areas that help in visual recognition of shapes and colours.
* Different parts of the lobe react to lines, shapes, edges, motion and colour.
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Temporal lobe:
* Behaviour, hearing, memory, speech, vision
* Allows a person to tell one smell from another and one sound from another
* Help in sorting new info and are responsible for short term memory.
* Right lobe= Visual memory
* Left lobe= Verbal memory
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Parietal lobe:
* Intelligence, language, reading, sensation.
* Contains the primary sensory cortex which controls sensation like touch or pressure
* Behind= association area that controls fine sensation which is judgement of texture, weight, size or shape.
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Frontal lobe:
* Behaviour, intelligence, memory, movement.
| * Handles complex thoughts including those involved with planning, organising, problem solving and selective attention.
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Label the four lobes of the brain:
* front
* middle
* back
* top
* Front= Frontal lobe
* Middle= Temporal lobe
* Back= Occipital lobe
* Top=Parietal lobe
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Soma/nucleus:
•Contains a nucleus that controls the cells metabolic functions and maintenance.
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Synapse:
•The point at which one neuron communicates with another.
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Axon:
Carries information away from the soma towards other neurons, or towards muscle gland cells.
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Dendrites:
Carry information in the form of electrical impulses from other neurons, or from the senses, to the the soma.
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Myeline sheath:
* Part of another cell (called a Schwann cell) which wraps itself around the axon
* Insulates nerves, enabling them to quickly conduct impulses between the brain and other parts of the body
* Contains proteins (which target immune system)
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Cell body:
The site of synthesis of virtually all neuronal proteins and membranes.
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Look at a labelled Neuron structure.
Do it. Look at it.
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Constructivism theory:
Suggests that humans construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences.
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Nativist Theory:
* Biologically based theory
* Argues that humans are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language.
* Noam Chomsky= Main theorist
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Bottom-up processing:
* Perception starts at the sensory input, the stimulus.
| * Thus, perception can be described as data-driven.
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Top-down processing:
Refers to how our brains make use of information that has already been brought into out brains by one or more of the sensory systems.
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Observational methods:
In psychological research, entail the observation and description of a subjects behaviour.
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Intelligence definition:
The ability to learn from experience, to acquire knowledge, to reason and solve problems, to deal with people and objects, and to adapt effectively to the environment. Intelligence is socially and culturally determined.
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Stages and ages in a typical 'life span':
* Infancy (birth-2)
* Childhood (2-10)
* Adolescence (10-20)
* Early adulthood (20-40)
* Middle age (40-65)
* Older age (65+)
