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Sensation and Perception Flashcards

1
Q

Absolute Threshold

A

The minimum amount of a stimulus energy required to activate a sensory system (the amount of a stimulus that an individual can perceive)

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2
Q

Difference Thresholds

A

How different two stimuli must be before they’re perceived as different

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3
Q

Just Noticeable Difference

A

Ernest Weber

The amount of change necessary to predict the difference between two stimuli: THIS IS A UNIT OF MEASURE (JND)

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4
Q

Weber’s Law

A

Ernest Weber

What’s important in producing a just noticeable difference is not the absolute difference between stimuli, it is the ratio

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5
Q

Georg von Békésy

A

Empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported Helmholtz’s place-resonance theory

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6
Q

George Berkeley

A

Developed a list of depth cues that help us perceive depth

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7
Q

Donald Broadbent

A

Proposed filter theory of attention (attending to something allows it to be processed further), and that selective attention was all or nothing (disconfirming = Cocktail Party Phenomenon which suggests dichotic listening)

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8
Q

Gustav Fechner

A

Developed Fechner’s Law, which expresses the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation

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9
Q

Elanor Gibson and Richard Walk

A

Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception

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10
Q

Hermann von Helmholtz

A

Developed the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision

Developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception

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11
Q

Ewald Hering

A

Developed opponent process theory of color vision

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12
Q

James Gibson

A

Studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth

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13
Q

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

A

Studied feature detection in the visual cortex (using single-cell recording) and discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells

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14
Q

Wolfgang Köhler

A

Developed theory of isomorphism

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15
Q

Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall

A

Proposed gate theory of pain

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16
Q

Stanley Smith Stevens

A

Developed Steven’s law as an alternative to Fechner’s law

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17
Q

John A. Swets

A

Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory

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18
Q

Ernest Wever & Charles Bray

A

Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the frequency theory of pitch perception

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19
Q

Robert Yerkes and John Dodson

A

Developed Yerkes-Dodson Law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arousal

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20
Q

Fechner’s Law

A

Expresses the relation between the intensity of a sensation and the intensity of a stimulus

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21
Q

Steven’s Power Law

A

Relates intensity of a stimulus to the intensity of the sensation

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22
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

The idea that other, nonsensory factors influence what a participant says she senses (i.e. experiences, motives, expectations)

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23
Q

Response Bias (signal detection theory)

A

Measures how risky the subject is in sensory decision making; based on non-sensory factors (measured by hits, misses, false alarms, correct negatives)

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24
Q

Sensitivity

A

Feature of signal detection theory that measures how well the subject can sense the stimulus

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25
ROC Curve
Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve Used to graphically summarize a subject's responses in a signal detection experiment Proportion of times a signal is reported when presented and when not presented
26
Stages of Sensory Information Processing
1. Reception 2. Transduction 3. Electrochemical energy is sent to various projection areas in the brain along various neural pathways and can be processed by the nervous system
27
Transduction
Translation of physical energy into neural impulses or action potentials
28
Projection Areas
Brain areas that further analyze sensory input
29
Cornea
Clear dome-like wondow in front of the eye that gathers and focuses incoming light
30
Pupil
Hole in the iris that contracts and expands to let less or more light in
31
Iris
Colored part of the eye. Has involuntary muscles and autonomic nerve fibers. Controls the size of the pupil
32
Lens
Right behind the iris, helps control the curvature of light entering and focuses near or distant objects on the retina
33
Retina
In the back of the eye, like a screen - is the image detecting part of the eye. Contains rods and cones
34
Blind Spot
Where the optic nerve leaves the eye - there are no photoreceptors there
35
Cones
Photoreceptor dealing with color vision and fine detail. Most effective in bright light. Allows us to see chromatic and achromatic colors. Each cone has its own bipolar cell connection to the brain ("private line")
36
Rods
Photoreceptors that only detect achromatic colors (light but no hue). They have low sensitivity to detail and work best in reduced illumination. There are more rods than cones. Rods share a bipolar cell connection to the brain ("party line")
37
Fovea
Where visual acuity is best. Only rods in the fovea (as you move away from it, the number of rods decreases and number of cones increases)
38
Optic Nerve
Comprised of ganglion cells that help link with photoreceptors
39
Optic Chiasm
Where the nasal fibers cross paths (whereas the temporal fibers do not cross paths)
40
Where in the Brain Visual Sensory Information is Processed
1. Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus 2. Visual cortex in the occipital lobe 3. Superior colliculus
41
Feature Detection Theory
Hubel and Wiesel Certain cells in the cortex are maximally sensitive to certain features of stimuli. Three types of cells: 1. Simple (orientation) 2. Complex (movement) 3. Hypercomplex (shape)
42
Illumination
A physical, objective measurement of the amount of light falling on a surface
43
Brightness
The subjective impression of intensity of a light stimulus
44
Dark Adaptation
A factor in perceiving brightness concerned with adapting to darker environments. The reason we cannot immediately see in the dark is because the light reaching photoreceptors before entering the dark room bleached the photopigment in the rods (RHODOPSIN). Bleaching = when rhodopsin absorbs light photons and begins to decompose into retinal and opsin (its parts). It takes time to regenerate
45
Lateral Inhibition
Adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another, which sharpens and highlights borders between light and dark areas
46
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Young and Helmhotlz Retina contains three different types of color receptors (cones) which are differentially sensitive to different colors (cones for red, blue, and green). All colors are produced by the combined stimulation of these receptors
47
Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision
Ewald Hering - came from criticism of Trichromatic Theory Three opposing pairs (red-green/ blue-yellow/ white-black). Afterimages support this theory
48
Interposition
A depth cue (aka overlap) - if one object covers another, the partially hidden object is seen as farther away George Berkeley
49
Relative Size
A depth cue - Comparison of retinal size of object to actual size of object gives us cues to depth (smaller when farther away) George Berkeley
50
Linear Perspective
A depth cue - parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance George Berkeley
51
Texture Gradients
A depth cue - as scenes recede from the viewer, the surface texture of the objects seem to change J. J. Gibson
52
Motion Parallax
A depth cue - when an observer moves, objects in a stationary environment appear to move relative to the distance from the observer
53
Binocular Disparity
A depth cue (aka stereopsis) - each eye sees a slightly different scene; when the brain combines the scenes, we get a perception of depth
54
Gestalt Laws of Form Perception
1. Law of proximity (elements close o one another tend to be perceived as a unit) 2. Law of similarity (similar elements are grouped together) 3. Law of good continuation (elements that appear to follow same direction tend to be grouped together) 4. Law of Closure (tendency to see incomplete figures as being complete) 5. Law of Prägnanz (Encompasses all other laws and says that perceptual organization will always be as parsimonious as possible)
55
Theory of Isomorphism
Köhler There is a one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain (not much empirical support)
56
Bottom-Up Processing
Theory of Object Recognition: Data driven, sums up components to create a whole
57
Top-Down Processing
Theory of Object Recognition: Conceptually driven; perception is guided by conceptual patterns (expectations, memories) to recognize objects first, then its components
58
Five Ways to Make Light Look Like it's Moving
1. Real motion 2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon; when two stationary lights flicker in succession, they're perceived as a single moving light) 3. Induced motion (stationary point of light appears to move when the background moves) 4. Autokinetic effect (stationary point of light in a totally dark room appears to move - likely due to involuntary eye movements & no frame of reference) 5. Motion aftereffect (if a moving object is viewed for an extended period, a spot of light will appear to move in the opposite direction when the motion stops)
59
Distal Stimulus vs Proximal Stimulus
``` Distal = actual object Proximal = sensory information received ```
60
Four Constancies if Visual Perception
1. Size constancy 2. Shape constancy 3. Lightness constancy 4. Color constancy
61
Studying Perception in Infants (2 major methods)
1. Preferential Looking | 2. Habituation
62
Visual Cliff
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk Studying depth perception in infants
63
Dimensions of Sound
1. Frequency (Objective dimension. Number of cycles per second, measured in Hz) 2. Intensity (Objective dimension. Amplitude of sound wave, measured in decibels) 3. Pitch (Subjective experience of the frequency of sound) 4. Loudness (Subjective experience of intensity of sound) 5. Timbre (Refers to the quality of the sound)
64
Outer Ear
Contains - Pinna - Auditory Canal
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Pinna
In the outer ear. Channels sound waves into the auditory canal
66
Auditory Canal
In the outer ear. Channels sound to the eardrum
67
Middle Ear
Contains three bones/ossicles that transmit vibrations to the inner ear 1. Hammer (aka malleus) 2. Anvil (aka incus) 3. Stirrup (aka stapes)
68
Inner Ear
Contains 1. Cochlea 2. Semicircular canals
69
Coclea
Contains the Basilar Membrane (hair cells are receptors for hearing)
70
Processing Auditory Sensory Information
Cochlea ---> Basilar Membrane (hairs bend) ---> transduced into electrical charges ---> transmitted out of cochlea along nerve fiber
71
Brain Structures Relating to Audition
- Superior olive - Inferior colliculus - Medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus - Temporal cortex
72
Place Theory of Pitch Perception
Helmholtz | Each different pitch causes a different place on the basilar membrane to vibrate
73
Frequency Theory of Pitch Perception
Suggests that the basilar membrane vibrates as a whole, and that the rate of vibration equals the frequency of the stimulus (and that the vibration rate is directly translated into the appropriate number of neural impulses per second)
74
Traveling Wave Theory
Békésky High frequency sounds maximally vibrate the basilar membrane near the beginning of the cochlea close to the oval window and low frequencies maximally vibrate basilar membrane near the apex/tip of the cochlea
75
Taste Sensory Receptors
A chemical sense. Receptors = Papillae (in taste buds). Information travels to the taste center in the thalamus
76
Smell Sensory Receptors
A chemical sense. Receptors = Olfactory epithelium. Information travels to the olfactory bulb.
77
Four Categories of Touch
1. Pressure 2. Pain 3. Warmth 4. Cold
78
Five Types of Touch Receptors
1. Pacinian corpulscles (deep pressure) 2. Meissner corpuscles (touch) 3. Merkle discs (warmth) 4. Ruffini endings (warmth) 5. Free nerve endings
79
Two-Point Thresholds
Minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin for the points to be felt as distinct stimuli
80
Physiological Zero
Neutral body temperature that is perceived to be neither nor nor cold
81
Gate Theory of Pain
Theory that there is a gating mechanism on the spinal cord that turns pain signals on and off
82
Proprioception
A term for out sense of bodily sensation
83
Vestibular Sense
Balance and bodily position relative to gravity (receptors = semicircular canals in the inner ear, behind the cochlea)
84
Kinesthetic Sense
Awareness of body movement and position (receptors = muscles, tendons, joint)
85
Brain Structures Relating to Vision
- Lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus - Superior colliculus - Visual cortex in the occipital lobe
86
Brain Structures Relating to Touch
Somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe
87
Specificity Theory (sensation)
Given neurons fire for given signal qualities
88
Across-Fiber Theory (sensation)
Quality of signal comes from overall pattern of neural firing
89
Bipolar Cells
As a part of the retina, bipolar cells exist between photoreceptors (rod cells and cone cells) and ganglion cells. They transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells.
90
Ganglion Cells
Collect visual information in their dendrites from bipolar cells and amacrine cells and transmit it to the brain
91
Accommodation
The process by which the vertebrate eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies

Psychology GRE (10 decks)

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