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BIOM2011 > Sensory 2025 > Flashcards

Sensory 2025 Flashcards

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1
Q

Q: What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

A

CNS: Brain and spinal cord
PNS: Afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) divisions

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2
Q

Q: What is the Enteric Nervous System (ENS)?

A

A: A network of nerves in the gastrointestinal tract.

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3
Q

Q: What are the three main classes of neurons?

A

Afferent neurons: Carry sensory input to CNS
Interneurons: Integrate information
Efferent neurons: Carry motor output from CNS

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4
Q

Q: Why do we need a sensory system?

A

Maintain homeostasis
Enable perception of the environment
Support motor coordination
Contribute to consciousness

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5
Q

Q: What is sensory transduction?

A

A: The process by which receptors convert stimuli into electrical signals.

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6
Q

Q: What is receptor potential?

A

A: A graded depolarization that may trigger action potentials.

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7
Q

Q: What is receptor adaptation?

A

Tonic receptors: Adapt slowly
Phasic receptors: Adapt rapidly

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8
Q

Q: Match receptor types with their stimuli:

A

Photoreceptors: Light (photons)
Chemoreceptors: Chemicals (lock-and-key)
Mechanoreceptors: Mechanical energy
Osmoreceptors: Solute concentration
Nociceptors: Pain
Thermoreceptors: Temperature (heat/cold)

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9
Q

Q: What is a receptive field?

A

A: The area within which a receptor detects stimuli.

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10
Q

Q: How is acuity related to receptive field size?

A

A: Inversely proportional—smaller fields = higher acuity.

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11
Q

Q: What improves acuity when fields overlap?

A

A: Lateral inhibition

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12
Q

Q: What are the key features encoded by sensory systems?

A

Modality (type)
Location (receptive field)
Intensity (firing rate)
Timing (AP train patterns)
Direction

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13
Q

Q: What is the difference between sensation and perception?

A

Sensation: Detection of stimuli
Perception: Conscious interpretation of stimuli

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14
Q

Q: What is the McGurk effect?

A

A: A perceptual phenomenon where visual input alters auditory perception.

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15
Q

Q: What are the two sources of visual perception?

A

Bottom-up: Data from photoreceptors
Top-down: Expectations from the CNS

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16
Q

Q: What are the main components of the human eye involved in vision?

A

Cornea: Transparent, protective, provides most refractive power
Lens: Focuses light, accommodates, UV filter
Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones)

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17
Q

Q: What is the function of the cornea?

A

Fixed focusing power
Mechanical protection
No vascularization (immune privilege)

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18
Q

Q: What is the function of the lens?

A

Adaptive focusing
Made of crystalline fibers
Transparency depends on organization

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19
Q

Q: What are the differences between rods and cones?

A

Rods: High sensitivity, low acuity, night vision, achromatic
Cones: Low sensitivity, high acuity, color vision, 3 pigment types

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20
Q

Q: Where are cones concentrated?

A

A: In the fovea, which has high acuity and no vascularization.

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21
Q

Q: What is the optic disc?

A

A: The exit point of the optic nerve; contains no photoreceptors (blind spot).

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22
Q

Q: How does the eye adapt to different light intensities?

A

Pupil dilation (~16-fold)
Photoreceptor adaptation (~10⁵-fold)
Neural adaptation (~10-fold)

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23
Q

Q: What is pigment regeneration?

A

Cones regenerate quickly
Rods regenerate slowly

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24
Q

Q: What conditions result from adaptation deficiencies?

A

Nyctalopia: Night blindness
Hemeralopia: Day blindness

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25
Q: What are the three types of cones and their sensitivities?
S (short): Blue M (medium): Green L (long): Red (S cones are ~10% as sensitive as M and L)
26
Q: What is univariance in vision?
A: Each cone type responds to light but cannot distinguish wavelength alone—color is perceived by comparing responses across cone types.
27
Q: What causes color blindness?
A: Missing or altered opsin genes (on the X chromosome).
28
Q: What are the types of color blindness?
Protanopia: Missing L cones Deuteranopia: Missing M cones Tritanopia: Missing S cones
29
Q: What are color vision anomalies?
Protanomaly: Shifted L cone sensitivity Deuteranomaly: Shifted M cone sensitivity Tritanomaly: Shifted S cone sensitivity
30
Q: What is a visual pigment composed of?
A: A protein opsin + retinal.
31
Q: What are the key visual pigments?
Rhodopsin (rods): scotopsin + retinal Photopsins I, II, III (cones) Melanopsin (ipRGCs) Neuropsins (brain, skin, etc.)
32
Q: What happens when a photon hits a rod?
Retinal isomerizes (all-trans form) Opsin changes shape Transducin is activated PDE is activated cGMP levels drop Cation channels close Cell hyperpolarizes Ca²⁺ channels close → neurotransmitter release decreases
33
Q: What is the base state of a rod cell?
A: Depolarized (~–40 mV) due to open cation channels.
34
Q: How do rods and cones differ?
Rods: High sensitivity, slow, saturate easily Cones: Lower sensitivity, fast, don’t saturate, support color vision
35
Q: What is Wald’s cycle?
A: The regeneration of visual pigments after light exposure.
36
Q: What are the main retinal cell types and their functions?
Photoreceptors: Detect light, hyperpolarize Horizontal cells: Lateral inhibition, integrate signals Bipolar cells: Vertical transmission, ON/OFF types Amacrine cells: Lateral integration, >30 subtypes Ganglion cells: Output to brain, ON/OFF center responses
37
Q: What is lateral inhibition?
A: Inhibitory signals from horizontal cells that enhance contrast and acuity.
38
Q: What is an ON-center bipolar cell?
A: A cell that depolarizes when light hits the center of its receptive field and hyperpolarizes when light hits the surround.
39
Q: What is the function of ON/OFF center ganglion cells?
A: They detect edges and contrast in the visual field.
40
Q: How is edge enhancement achieved in the retina?
Through inhibitory feedback loops involving: Photoreceptors Horizontal cells Bipolar cells Amacrine cells Ganglion cells
41
Q: What visual illusion demonstrates lateral inhibition?
A: The Hermann Grid illusion.
42
Q: What are the key properties of sound?
Frequency (pitch) Amplitude (volume) Timbre (tone color) Direction
43
Q: How does sound travel?
A: As compression waves that displace a medium.
44
Q: What are the three main parts of the ear and their functions?
Outer ear: Collects and amplifies sound; aids in direction detection Middle ear: Equalizes pressure, amplifies sound (~20×), protects against loud noise Inner ear: Contains receptors for hearing and balance; hearing occurs in the cochlea
45
Q: What is the cochlea?
A: A fluid-filled spiral tube with three chambers; contains the Organ of Corti, where sound is transduced.
46
Q: What are the roles of inner and outer hair cells?
Inner hair cells: Transduce sound Outer hair cells: Amplify basilar membrane movement (shorten on depolarization, lengthen on hyperpolarization)
47
Q: How do hair cells transduce sound?
Bending toward the tallest stereocilium opens cation channels → depolarization → Ca²⁺ influx → neurotransmitter release Bending away closes channels → hyperpolarization → reduced neurotransmitter release
48
Q: What connects stereocilia?
A: Tip links
49
Q: How is pitch encoded in the cochlea?
A: By place coding—different regions of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.
50
Q: What is tonotopy?
A: The spatial mapping of sound frequency in the auditory system, present from cochlea to cortex.
51
Q: How is loudness encoded?
Amplitude of basilar membrane motion Rate coding (firing frequency) Population coding (number of neurons activated)
52
Q: What is the acoustic reflex?
A: A protective mechanism that reduces sound transmission (~15–20 dB).
53
Q: What is timbre?
A: The quality of sound determined by the overlay of multiple frequencies.
54
Q: How is sound direction detected?
Elevation: External ear shape Azimuth: Interaural level difference (ILD) for >2 kHz Interaural time difference (ITD) for <2 kHz
55
Q: What is Jeffress' model?
A: A model of coincidence detection using delay lines to compute ITD.
56
Q: What is the order of auditory processing?
Cochlear nucleus Superior olive & trapezoid body (binaural integration) Inferior colliculus (integration) Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of thalamus Auditory cortex (perception, speech)
57
Q: What are the two main types of hearing loss?
Conductive: Issues in outer/middle ear Sensorineural: Damage to hair cells or auditory nerve
58
Q: What is presbycusis?
A: Age-related hearing loss.
59
Q: What can restore hearing in some sensorineural cases?
A: Cochlear implants
60
Q: Where are all vestibular receptors located?
A: In the inner ear.
61
Q: What are the five vestibular sensory structures?
3 semicircular canals (sense rotational motion) 2 otolith organs (utricle and saccule; sense linear acceleration)
62
Q: What is the function of the semicircular canals?
A: Detect angular (rotational) motion in three orthogonal planes.
63
Q: What is the function of the otolith organs?
A: Detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity.
64
Q: How do vestibular hair cells transduce motion?
Bending toward the tallest stereocilium → opens cation channels → depolarization → neurotransmitter release Bending away → closes channels → hyperpolarization → reduced neurotransmitter release
65
Q: What structure connects stereocilia?
A: Tip links
66
Q: What is the cupula?
A: A gelatinous structure in the ampullae of semicircular canals where hair cells are embedded.
67
Q: What are otoconia?
A: Calcium carbonate crystals that increase the density of the otolith membrane.
68
Q: How are the utricle and saccule oriented?
Utricle: Horizontal Saccule: Vertical Hair cell polarity is inverted between them.
69
Q: What causes ambiguity in vestibular signals?
Rotation: Same signal whether upright or lying down Linear acceleration: Indistinguishable from tilt (Einstein’s equivalence principle)
70
Q: How is this ambiguity resolved?
A: By integrating semicircular canal and otolith signals in second-order neurons.
71
Q: What are the key components of the vestibular pathway?
Labyrinth: Sensory input Vestibular nuclei: Integration (4 nuclei, bilateral) Thalamus: Multimodal processing Parieto-insular vestibular cortex: Conscious perception
72
Q: What is the vestibulospinal reflex?
A: Maintains posture and balance, coordinates with spinal reflexes and prevents head injury during falls.
73
Q: What is the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)?
Stabilizes vision during head movement Compensates with eye movements Scaled by viewing distance and eye position
74
Q: What is an efference copy?
A: A copy of a motor command used to predict and suppress self-generated sensory input.
75
Q: What is corollary discharge?
A: The inhibitory signal generated from the efference copy to filter out internal stimuli, leaving only external sensory input.
76
Q: What is a sensory system and why do we need one?
A: A system that detects and transduces environmental stimuli to maintain homeostasis, enable perception, and guide motor coordination.
77
Q: What are examples of sensory receptors and their functions?
Photoreceptors: Detect light Mechanoreceptors: Detect pressure/vibration Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature Nociceptors: Detect pain
78
Q: What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation: Detection of stimuli Perception: Interpretation of stimuli by the brain
79
Q: What structures focus light in the eye?
A: Cornea (fixed focus) and lens (accommodation)
80
Q: How does the eye adapt to different light conditions?
Pupil dilation Photoreceptor adaptation Pigment regeneration Neural adaptation
81
Q: What is univariance in color vision?
A: A single photoreceptor cannot distinguish wavelength—color is perceived by comparing responses across cone types (S, M, L).
82
Q: What are the five main retinal cell types and their roles?
Photoreceptors: Detect light Horizontal cells: Lateral inhibition Bipolar cells: Vertical transmission (ON/OFF) Amacrine cells: Lateral integration Ganglion cells: Output to brain via optic nerve
83
Q: What is lateral inhibition?
A: A mechanism that enhances contrast and acuity by inhibiting neighboring cells.
84
Q: What are the three parts of the ear and their functions?
Outer ear: Collects sound Middle ear: Amplifies sound Inner ear: Transduces sound (cochlea)
85
Q: How do auditory hair cells transduce sound?
Bending opens cation channels → depolarization → Ca²⁺ influx → neurotransmitter release
86
Q: How is pitch encoded?
A: By place coding along the basilar membrane (tonotopy)
87
Q: What do semicircular canals and otolith organs detect?
Semicircular canals: Rotational acceleration Otoliths (utricle/saccule): Linear acceleration
88
Q: What is sensory ambiguity in the vestibular system?
Similar signals can result from different movements (e.g., tilt vs. acceleration); resolved by integrating canal and otolith input.
89
Q: What is an efference copy?
A: A copy of a motor command used to suppress self-generated sensory input (corollary discharge).
90
Q: What causes color blindness?
Missing or altered opsin genes (X-linked). Protanopia: Missing L cones Deuteranopia: Missing M cones Tritanopia: Missing S cones
91
Q: What are color vision anomalies?
A: Shifted spectral sensitivity (e.g., protanomaly, deuteranomaly, tritanomaly)
92
Q: What is Jeffress’ model?
A: A model of coincidence detection using delay lines to compute interaural time differences (ITD) for sound localization.
93
Q: What does a receptor potential represent once threshold is reached?
The intensity of the stimulus

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