Seven questions for race and ethnicity

Question 1

1. Explain the Neo-Marxist perspective of the Birmingham Centre of Contemporary Cultural Studies as it is applied to study of race and ethnicity.

Answer 1

• Neo-Marxist Perspective vs. Orthodox Marxism
  
  • Focuses less on Bourgeoise and Proletariat exploitation via economic base/infrastructure.
  • Emphasises the superstructure and culture, like ideologies shaping capitalism.
• Cultural Studies Approach to Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Examines how dominant ideas and values shape racial ideologies.
  • The state creates and sustains racist ideologies to maintain racial divisions.
  • Ethnic groups are labelled as ‘different,’ reinforcing discriminatory ideologies.
  • These ideologies separate ethnic groups from the working class, preventing unity.
• Neo Marxist’s - Hall & Gilroy - Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS)
  
  • Argued that race and ethnicity are relatively independent from class oppression.
  • Economic factors influence racial and ethnic relations but do not fully determine them.
• Birmingham Centre of Contemporary Cultural Studies Perspective on Race and Ethnicity
  
  • Race and ethnicity are socially and culturally constructed, with no biological factors.
  • Culture shapes racial and ethnic identities through practices, values, beliefs, and labels.
• Concept of Supremacy and Marginalisation
  
  • Dominant groups impose cultural norms and values on subordinate groups.
  • Generational advantages lead to the marginalisation of oppressed groups.
• Role of Ideology and Power Relations
  
  • Dominant ideologies justify and legitimise social structures that sustain inequality.
  • Power relations allow dominant groups to impose their cultural norms on the marginalised.
• Decentring and Disrupting Dominant Power Structures
  
  • Marginalised groups challenge dominant ideologies and power structures.
  • Resistance occurs through cultural production, activism, and social movements.
  • Racism doesn’t take hold within an educated population.

Question 2

2. Explain how Paul Gilroy’s study ‘There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack’
   (1987) relates to the Neo-Marxist perspective on race and ethnicity.

Answer 2

• Racism as a Structural Issue
  
  • Paul Gilroy argues that racism is deeply embedded in societal structures, not just individual discrimination.
  • Black cultural resistance plays a crucial role in challenging oppression.
• Neo-Marxist Perspective on Racism
  
  • Racism is a social construct designed to benefit the wealthy and maintain power imbalances.
  • Black communities face exploitation and exclusion, reinforcing systemic oppression.
  • Aligns with Oliver Cox’s theory that racism is created to serve elite interests.
• Media’s Role in Reinforcing Racism (1980s UK Race Riots)
  
  • Media framed riots as caused by “black lawlessness” and “youthful violence.”
  • Reinforced harmful stereotypes and racial superiority narratives generating segregation.
  • Created public fear and anxiety, portraying black communities as a threat to social order insinuating a Jim Crow law approach.
• Justification of State Control
  
  • Media gaslighting attempted to justify heavy-handed policing in response to the riots.
  • And strengthened the idea that black communities needed to be controlled and contained.
• Erasure of Structural Issues
  
  • Media focused on criminalising black youth rather than addressing root causes of the social construct and macro issues.
  • Media and heavy policing served to distract and ignored high rates of poverty, unemployment, and police brutality in structural issues.
• Black Cultural Resistance
  
  • Essential in challenging racial oppression and dominant narratives.
  • Crucial as a means to counter supremacy power, structures and systemic racism.

Question 3

3. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the Neo-Marxist perspective on race and ethnicity and Paul Gilroy’s study on race and ethnicity.

Answer 3

• Neo-Marxist Perspective (John Solomos & Bob Findlay)
  
  • Emphasises capitalism shaping racial and ethnic relations.
  • Strength: Highlights economic structures reinforce racial and ethnic inequality.
  • Weakness: Overlooks complexities of ethnic identity and marginalised groups.
• Paul Gilroy’s Perspective on Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Racism is embedded in cultural and social structures.
  • Concepts of “diaspora” and “Black Atlantic” challenge traditional views of race and ethnicity.
  • Strength: Provides a cultural understanding to structural accounts of race and ethnicity.
  • Weakness: Primarily focuses on Black experiences in Britain, limiting experiences of other ethnic groups, and complexities of race and ethnicity in Britain.
• Birmingham Centre of Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS)
  
  • Recognises culture’s role in shaping Black experiences and struggles in Britain.
• Oliver Cox’s Contribution
  
  • Stresses the importance of historical and cultural context in racial and ethnic relations through exploitation of labour.
  • Examines how racism continues through social and economic institutions.

Question 4

4. Explain the symbolic interactionist perspective as it is applied to the study of race and ethnicity.

Answer 4

• Core Ideas of Symbolic Interactionism
  
  • Individuals and societies develop through symbolic interactions, with words and language being the most important symbolic interactions.
  • Symbolic meanings of skin colour and cultural differences attached via social construction shape self-perception and social understanding.
• Development of Self (Erving Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory)
  
  • Individuals learn to use symbols to develop a sense of self.
  • Frontstage: Public Self, shaped by social expectations.
  • Backstage: Inner Self, reflecting personal identity.
• Racism & Bias as a Social Process
  
  • One racial group defines themselves and redefines another group through symbolic interactions.
  • Nazis are an example of using the Star of David to Symbolically Define and dehumanise Jewish people, labelling them inferior.
  • Media and social institutions reinforce racial meanings and stereotypes.
• Micro-Level Analysis of Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Examines everyday interactions between people of different racial/ethnic backgrounds and attaches differences.
  • Research shows how social interactions can reinforce and spread harmful biases and misconceptions.
  • Uses qualitative data to analyse these interactions excluding mainstream statistics.

Question 5

5. Explain how Erving Goffman’s study ‘Stigma: Notes on the Management of a
   Spoiled Identity’ (1968) relates to the symbolic interactionist perspective on race and ethnicity.

Answer 5

Erving Goffman’s work on stigma is a prime example of the application of Symbolic Interactionism to understanding social exclusion. According to Goffman, stigma refers to the social disqualification of an individual, rendering them unfit for full social acceptance through social constructs using racism. This concept challenges the notion that stigma is only a physical attribute, instead highlighting its social construction.

Goffman’s definition of stigma is a “deeply discrediting” attribute describing the negative consequences of being socially excluded, including being pushed to the fringes of society, lacking access to basic rights and services, and being denied equal opportunities or being protected by police protection. His work sheds light on the ways in which individuals are “discredited” and subsequently marginalised, revealing the historical exclusionary practices that have allowed social inequality to continue.

The Equality Act 2010 in Scotland, aims to promote equality and fairness by prohibiting discrimination on grounds of protected characteristics, including race, gender, and disability. While progress has been made, Goffman’s work highlights the ongoing need to challenge and dismantle systems of oppression, and work towards a more inclusive and equitable society.

Goffman identifies three types of social stigma, referring to social labels or markers. Tribal stigmas often based on race, ethnicity, or other perceived characteristics. Character stigmas, such as mental illness, physical disability, or criminal behaviour. Brushfire stigmas behaviours such as being a prostitute or a drug user. These Stigmas are reinforced through channels of authority, the media, roll models, apps and all forms of socialisation.

Question 6

6. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the symbolic interactionist perspective on race and ethnicity and Erving Goffman’s study as applied to race and ethnicity.

Answer 6

• Strengths of Symbolic Interactionism in Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Racial and ethnic differences are seen as social constructs, not fixed traits.
  • Meanings and perceptions of race and ethnicity can change through social interaction.
  • Goffman’s study on stigma explains how individuals manage racial and ethnic identities in society.
  • If race is socially constructed, it can also be socially deconstructed, allowing change.
• Weaknesses of Symbolic Interactionism in Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Lacks a understanding of structural inequalities arising from race and ethnicity.
  • Micro-level focus means it relies on qualitative data and lacks statistical evidence.
  • Goffman’s study overlooks historical and structural factors, like institutional racism and generational wealth not being distributed, Also failing to consider the role of major institutions (e.g., organised religion) in shaping racial inequalities.
  • Does not fully address long-term systemic racism, such as wealth concentration and exclusionary practices.

Question 7

7. Explain the similarities and differences between the Neo-Marxist perspective and symbolic interactionist perspective as they are applied to race and ethnicity.

Answer 7

• Similarities Between Neo-Marxist and Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives
  
  • Both view race and ethnicity as social constructs, and having no biological differences as biology changes over time.
  • Recognise that classifications and labels of race and ethnicity are socially assigned.
  • Acknowledge the influence of individual differences such as class, gender, and race.
• Neo-Marxist Perspective on Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Race and ethnicity are tools of oppression used by the wealthy to maintain power.
  • Focuses on structural agents (government institutions and the media) in shaping racial and ethnic identities.
  • Racism is rooted in ideologies of racial superiority and economic exploitation, separating racism and class/poverty as distinct social issues.
• Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Race & Ethnicity
  
  • Race and ethnicity are products of individual influences in interactions
• Focuses on how people construct and negotiate racial identities in daily life.
• Symbolic Interaction focuses on ways individuals create their own identities through micro-level interactions.
• Racism occurs when an individual’s identity is stigmatised or discredited, using fear tactics to strengthen misconceptions.