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SEX Flashcards

1
Q

expressions of sexual dimorphism at different ages

A 
embryo - no sexual dimorphism
fetus - defined sexual dimorphism
newborn - no sexual dimorphism
child - no sexual dimorphism
puberty - enhanced sexual dimorphism
adult - full dimorphism with limited potential for change
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2
Q

what are tanners 5 stages of female puberty

A

P1 - pre pubertal
P2 - early breast bud development, few labial pubic hairs, some axillary hair
P3 - palpable breast tissue, increased body hair
P4 - increased breast tissue, areolar development, adult pubic hair
P5 - adult stage, menstruation

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3
Q

what are tanners 5 stages of male puberty

A

P1 - pre pubertal
P2 - increase in testicular size, pigmentation in scrotum, some hair development
P3 - increase in testicular size and penile length, increasing body hair
P4 - increase in penile length, thickening of adult hair pattern
P5 - full spermatogenesis

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4
Q

define sex determination

A

to identify and justify a decision made on the biological sex of an organism ascertained through genetic testing or physical/biochemical proxy indicators influenced by sexual dimorphism

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5
Q

define sexual dimorphism

A

systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in same species
the existence of physical differences between the sexes

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6
Q

define size dimorphism

A

part of sexual dimorphism

in most mammals we tend to find males are larger in body size (on average) than females

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7
Q

define sexual selection

A

mode of natural selection in which some individuals out-reproduce others in a population because they are better at securing mates
depends on a struggle between males for possession of and dominance over females

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8
Q

klinefelter syndrome

A 
XXY
1:1000 males
no facial hair
some breast development
very long arms
less developed testes
very long legs
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9
Q

turner syndrome

A 
XO
females only have one X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing
1:2500 f3emales
short stature
loss of ovarian function
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10
Q

hermaphrodite

A

2 separate gonads
XX, XY or XO
female pseudo - XX with normal female internal genitalia but masculine external genetalia and excessive testosterone production

male pseudo - XY with teste formation but often maldescent and feminine external genitalia

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11
Q

where is testosterone produced?

A

primarily synthesised in testes of males and ovaries of females
small amount secreted by adrenal glands

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12
Q

what are anabolic effects of testosterone?

A

growth of muscle mass and strength
increased bone density and strength
stimulation of linear growth and bone maturation

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13
Q

what are androgenic effects of testosterone? (development of male characteristics)

A

maturation of sex organs, particularly penis
formation of scrotum in penis
deepening of voice
growth of beard and axillary hair

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14
Q

what can excess androgen in women cause

A 
acne
weight gain
excessive hair growth
menstrual dysfunction
infertility
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15
Q

what causes excess androgen in women

A

polycystic ovaries adrenal cancer

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16
Q

estrone (E1)

A

found in men (small amounts) and women
synthesised by adrenal gland
made and stored in fatty tissue

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17
Q

estradiol (E2)

A

most active form of oestrogen

mainly produced by ovaries in women and testes and adrenal gland in men

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18
Q

estriol (E3)

A

major type of oestrogen during pregnancy
large amounts produced in placenta
levels continue to rise until just before delivery

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19
Q

symptoms of excess oestrogen in males

A 
enlarged breasts
low sex drive
excess belly fat
loss of body hair
loss of muscle tone
shrinking testes
erectile dysfunction
20
Q

causes of excess oestrogen in males

A

obesity
liver dysfunction
steroids
alcoholism

21
Q

what can excess oestrogen in males cause

A

double risk of stroke
increase risk of cardiovascular events
linked to prostate cancer

22
Q

what are the two most common skeletal areas investigated for sex in juveniles

A

auricular surface

greater sciatic notch

23
Q

why is metric determination of sex better than morphological

A

inherently more objective
replicability is high
avoids observational bias (introduces measurement error)
amenable to statistical analysis

24
Q

Pelvis metric method - Washburn 1948

A

indices allow comparison of skeletons of different size
based on maximum lengths of ischium and pubis measured from acetabular junction
pubo-ischial index derived by a formula
accuracy - 83.7% (males) 100% (females)
only able to be used on indviduals who belong to one major ancestral group

25
Q

why is the acetabular junction confusing?

A

the description of it is very vague and introduces subjectivity
point where the three main pelvic elements meet, better seen before union of the bones
there is a notch in the inner border of the lunate articular surface

26
Q

Thieme and Schull 1957

A

modified Washburn’s puboischial index
uses closest point on acetabular rim instead of central acetabular point
accuracy = 95%

27
Q

Schulter-Ellis et al. 1983

A

Acetabulopubic index
accuracy >90%
based on Terry collection - black american sample
produced 2nd paper using 100 white americans
used pubis length and acetabulum diameter

28
Q

Kelly 1979

A

sciatic notch/acetabular index
appeared to overcome limitations of ancestry - sample used american whites, blacks and indians
accuracy = 90%
vertical acetabular diameter = confusing = innominate must be in anatomical position, difficult if ASIS and pubic tubercle are damaged
could be applied to fragmentary and full innominates
tested on two european samples but showed poor consistency between recorded and estimated sex

29
Q

MacLaughlin and Bruce 1986

A

accuracy of sciatic notch/acetabular index on european samples
reclassified sectioning point for english and dutch populations

30
Q

what is discriminant function analysis

A

the act of distributing variables into classes or categories of the same type

31
Q

Steyn and Iscan 2008

A

modern greek sample 97male:95female
17 measurements of articulated and single pelvis and sacrum
step-wise discriminant function analysis
tested with leave-one-out cross-validation
sciatic notch = unreliable, poor results
sacrum = not dimorphic (60.9%)
innominate = 79-95% accuracy
acetabular diameter = most dimorphic, 83.9% accuracy

32
Q

Patriquin, Steyn and Loth 2005

A

n=400, south african white and black
9 novel and traditional measurements taken
significant sexual differences for most measurements in both ancestries
discriminant function analysis, leave-one-out cross-validation
ischial length = most sexually dimorphic in whites (86%)
acetabular diameter most in blacks (84%)
six functions developed from pelvis dimensions, best used all dimensions = 95.5% accuracy in whites, 94% in blacks

33
Q

Hager 1996

A

metric division of greater sciatic notch
showed clear differences between anterior and posterior chords of males and females
females = ant and post chords equal proportions
males = posterior chord smaller than anterior

34
Q

Blake and Hartnett-McCann 2018

A 
pubis measurements
novel and existing measurements
400 specimens
contemporary population
marcopa county in Arizona
89% accuracy in males
86% accuracy in females
88.2% overall correct classification
35
Q

how is the humerus sexually dimorphic

A

carrying angles differ to allow arms to swing past hip:

  • males have wide shoulders and narrow hips
  • females have narrow shoulders and wider hips

Carrying angle equates to sexually dimorphic morphology of elbow:

  • carrying angle = lateral deviation of forearm from humeral axis
  • 10-15 degrees in males (smaller because wide shoulders, narrow hips)
  • 20-25 degrees in females (bigger because narrow shoulders, wide hips)
36
Q

Rogers 1999

A

sex determination based on 4 morphological features of posterior distal humerus
based on 20th centuary white european sample
n=175male:27female
tested on 2 populations
4 statistically significant characteristics identified related to carrying angle
classification accuracy 92%
high inter-observer error
only tested on white populations
population bias - male:female

37
Q

Falys et al. 2005

A

blind test re-evaluating rogers method
test the applicability on archaeological sample
test ability to accurately determine sex
n=184:167 male:female
olecranon fossa shape most consistently accurate (84.6%)
overall accuracy for all traits = 79.1%
introduced an indeterminate classification
provided revised template for assessment of trochlear constriction

38
Q

Purkait 2001

A

sex from ulna
n=160 100:60 male:female
indian population
sample bias, population specific
olecranon-coronoid angle = best discriminator 85%
combination of 3 measurements gave 96% male 80% female

39
Q

which bones can show sexual dimorphism

A

bones which are subject to mechanical loading and stresses

40
Q

Purkait 2005

A

uses points of traction epiphyses on proximal femur
-apex of greater trochanter
-apex of lesser trochanter
-lateral most point of articular margin of head
based on muscle mass difference
n=280 200male:80female
indian population
sectioning points for single variables, calculations for multiple
lengths of triangle sides yielded highly significant results
single variable = 81.3-85.5%
combined variable = 86.3%-86.5%
can be applied to fragmentary remains

41
Q

Brown et al. 2007

A 
Tested purkait's method
200 indo-european, african american 
1:1 male:female
also looked at maximum diameter of femoral head
discriminant function analysis performed
purkait's single variable = 85.5% 
purkait's combined variables = >90%
42
Q

Scheuer and Elkington 1993

A

sex estimation from metacarpals and 1st proximal phalanx
n=60, british ancestry
6 measurements from each bone, detailed descriptions
regression equations produced then tested on british sample n=20
accuracy 74-94%

43
Q

Bidmos and Asala 2003

A

sex from 9 calcaneus measurements
discriminant function score equations generated
average accuracy 73-86% for univariate method, 81-91% for stepwise method, 82-92% for direct method

44
Q

Saldias et al. 2016

A

sex estimation from navicular
n=231
contemporary collection
83.4% accuracy using 3 measurements

45
Q

Case and Ross 2007

A

sex estimation from hand and foot
n=123 female, 136 males
discriminant function analysis used
left hand outperformed right hand >80% accuracy

46
Q

what issues should you account for when applying sex determination techniques

A

temporal and spatial variation within and between populations
modern populations need to be studied because of secular change
age is an important factor as some features do no develop until late adolescence, providing ambiguous results
sex bias
different parts of skeleton have more value in determining sex
discriminant function analysis is population specific

FHI (9 decks)

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