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Biological Psychology > Sex hormones, cognition, and behaviour > Flashcards

Sex hormones, cognition, and behaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

Biopsychology textbook

A

Pinel and Barnes, 2022

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2
Q

mamawawa

A

Men are men and women are women assumption

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3
Q

How do hormones influence sex?

A

By influencing development
Activating reproduction-related behaviour

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4
Q

Neuroendocrine system

A

Endocrine glands - release hormones into circulatory system
Exocrine glands - release chemicals into ducts

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5
Q

Three classes of hormones

A

Amino acid derivatives
Peptides and proteins
Steroids - from cholesterol

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6
Q

Why type of hormones are sex hormones?

A

Steroids
Bind to receptors in the cytoplasm/nucleus
Influence gene expression (most diverse and long-lasting effects)

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7
Q

What are androgens?

A

Gonadal hormones (aka testosterone)

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8
Q

Aside from ovaries and testes, what releases sex hormones?

A

Andrenal cortex

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9
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Releases tropic hormones

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10
Q

Tropic hormones

A

Hormones that stimulate the release of other hormones

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11
Q

Experiment that showed the pituitary was not responsible for male and female hormonal differences

A

Harris (1950)
Cyclical anterior pituitary from a female rat was transplanted into a male rat, and became steady-state, and vice versa

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12
Q

What part of the brain controls the pituitary gland?

A

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating various physiological processes, including the control of the pituitary gland.

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13
Q

Does the anterior pituitary gland receive neural input from the hypothalamus?

A

No

The anterior pituitary gland is regulated by hypothalamic-releasing and hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones released from hypothalamic neurons rather than direct neural input.

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14
Q

What hormone stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor?

A

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is crucial for childbirth and also plays a role in bonding and social behaviors.

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15
Q

What hormone facilitates reabsorption of water by the kidneys?

A

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

Vasopressin helps regulate water balance in the body.

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16
Q

What happens when the portal veins of the pituitary stalk are cut?

A

Disrupts the release of anterior pituitary hormones

Hormone release is affected until the veins regenerate (Harris, 1955), highlighting the importance of blood flow in hormone regulation.

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17
Q

What hormone triggers the release of thyrotropin from the anterior pituitary?

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

This hormone is essential for stimulating the thyroid gland to release hormones.

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18
Q

What does gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulate the release of?

A

Gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH)

These hormones are critical for reproductive functions.

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19
Q

What type of molecules are all hypothalamic-releasing hormones?

A

Peptides

Peptides are short chains of amino acids and play various roles in biological processes.

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20
Q

Which endocrine glands are regulated by signals from the nervous system?

A

All except the anterior pituitary

This includes glands like the adrenal glands and pancreas, which respond to neural inputs.

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21
Q

What type of neurons regulate hormone release in the brain?

A

Cerebral neurons
Outside the CNS - regulated by ANS

These neurons play a significant role in the hormonal regulation of body functions.

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22
Q

How is hormone release influenced by experience?

A

By environmental factors

Hormonal responses can be affected by experiences, such as stress or diet.

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23
Q

What are the two types of feedback loops involved in hormone regulation?

A

Positive and negative feedback loops

These loops help maintain homeostasis by regulating hormone levels based on physiological needs.

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24
Q

Which nonhormonal chemicals influence blood hormone levels?

A

Glucose, calcium, and sodium

These substances play critical roles in maintaining physiological balance and regulating hormone secretion.

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25
How do hormones tend to be released?
In pulses ## Footnote Pulsatile release leads to minute to minute fluctuations in circulating hormone levels, which can affect physiological responses.
26
Fill in the blank: All endocrine glands, except the anterior pituitary, are regulated by signals from the _______.
nervous system ## Footnote This distinction highlights the unique regulatory mechanisms of the anterior pituitary.
27
What gene triggers the synthesis of Sry protein during sexual differentiation?
Sry gene on the Y chromosome, in the 7th week after conception ## Footnote This gene is crucial for the development of male reproductive structures.
28
What does the Sry protein cause to develop?
The medulla into a testis ## Footnote The presence of the Sry protein is essential for male sexual differentiation.
29
What will be produced if Sry is injected into a genetic female?
A female with testes ## Footnote This demonstrates the influence of Sry on sexual differentiation. Qualifies the person as intersex.
30
What occurs if the effect of Sry protein is blocked in males?
A genetic male with ovaries ## Footnote This condition qualifies as intersexed persons.
31
What are the two internal reproductive duct systems?
* Wolffian System (male reproductive system) * Mullerian System (female reproductive system) ## Footnote These systems are responsible for the development of internal reproductive organs.
32
Which hormone do the testes secrete during the third month of male fetal development?
Testosterone and Mullerian-inhibiting substance ## Footnote Testosterone stimulates the development of the Wolffian system.
33
What substance inhibits the Mullerian system during male fetal development?
Mullerian-inhibiting substance ## Footnote This substance ensures the regression of female reproductive structures in males.
34
From what do male and female external reproductive organs develop?
The same bipotential precursor ## Footnote This precursor differentiates into male or female organs based on hormonal influences.
35
When does the differentiation of external reproductive organs begin?
At the end of the third month of pregnancy ## Footnote Hormonal presence during this period determines the sex of the external genitals.
36
What determines the development of male external genitals?
Presence of testosterone ## Footnote In the absence of testosterone, female external genitals will develop.
37
What changes occur in the body during puberty?
Onset of secondary sex characteristics ## Footnote This is due to an increase in circulating gonadal hormones.
38
Which hormones increase with the onset of puberty?
* Growth hormone * Gonadotropic hormone (acts on gonads) * Adrenocorticotropic hormone (acts on adrenal cortex) ## Footnote These hormones contribute to growth and the development of reproductive structures.
39
In males, which hormones are present in greater amounts?
Androgens > oestrogens ## Footnote This hormonal balance is crucial for male sexual development.
40
In females, which hormones are present in greater amounts?
Oestrogens > androgens ## Footnote This hormonal balance is crucial for female sexual development.
41
What was the first discovery of a sex difference in mammalian brain function?
Pfeiffer (1936) discovered that gonadectomising rats of either sex led to a cyclic female pattern of gonadotropin release
42
What happens when testes are transplanted into gonadectomised females?
They develop into adults with the steady male pattern ## Footnote This indicates the influence of testes on male hormonal patterns.
43
What is the outcome of transplanting ovaries into gonadectomised subjects?
It has no effect ## Footnote This suggests that the ovaries do not influence the hormonal patterns in the same way as testes.
44
What is the Aromatisation Hypothesis?
It states that oestradiol (testosterone + aromatase), not testosterone, masculinises the brain ## Footnote This hypothesis highlights the role of oestradiol in brain development.
45
What role does alpha fetoprotein play in brain development?
It deactivates circulating oestradiol by binding it ## Footnote This mechanism is crucial for maintaining female brain characteristics. Firmly established in rodents, controversial in humans.
46
What is a key difference between alpha fetoprotein and oestradiol?
Alpha fetoprotein does not cross the blood-brain barrier ## Footnote This allows oestradiol in the brain to remain active.
47
Which neurodegenerative diseases are more common in males?
Parkinson’s and ASD ## Footnote This highlights sex differences in the prevalence of certain neurological conditions.
48
Which neurodegenerative disease is more common in females?
Alzheimer’s ## Footnote This indicates a sex difference in susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease.
49
How do males and females differ in recovery from traumatic brain injuries?
Males do not recover as well as females ## Footnote This suggests potential biological differences in recovery processes.
50
What influences brain development aside from hormones?
Sex chromosomes and epigenetic mechanisms. Oestradiol may not be necessary for reproductive organ development, but does seem to be necessary for female brain development. ## Footnote These factors contribute to the complexity of brain development related to sex.
51
What did Pheonix an experiment demonstrate about testosterone in guinea pigs?
Pheonix et al., 1959 Testosterone masculinises a female adult’s reproductive behaviour ## Footnote This study supports the role of hormones in behavioural development.
52
What effect does lack early exposure to testosterone have on male rats?
Pheonix et al., 1965 Lack of early exposure feminises their reproductive behaviour ## Footnote This emphasizes the critical period for hormonal influence on behaviour.
53
What happens to castrated male rats injected with testosterone as adults?
They show no mounting behaviour ## Footnote This highlights the importance of early hormonal influence on reproductive behaviours.
54
What is a characteristic of sexual dimorphisms?
A behaviour that typically comes in two distinctive classes (male and female) ## Footnote This concept is important for understanding behavioural differences.
55
Which condition is significantly more prevalent in males?
ADHD is 10 times more likely in males ## Footnote This statistic underscores a notable sex difference in attention disorders.
56
What else plays a role in sex differences?
Cultural factors seem to influence the development of sex differences ## Footnote This suggests that environment and culture interact with biological factors.
57
What is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?
A condition where XY chromosomes have a gene mutation that makes androgen receptors unresponsive ## Footnote Despite the body releasing androgens, it can’t do anything with them, leading to female development in external genitals and behavior. Mullerian-inhibiting substance is released however, so ovaries don’t develop
58
What causes Adrenogenital Syndrome?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia – congenital deficiency in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex ## Footnote This results in compensatory adrenal hyperactivity and excessive release of adrenal androgens.
59
What are the effects of Adrenogenital Syndrome on males?
Little effect, only accelerated onset of puberty.
60
What are the effects of Adrenogenital Syndrome on females?
Born with enlarged clitoris and partially fused labia, but typical gonads ## Footnote Androgens are released too late to stimulate the onset of the Wolffian system.
61
What is the treatment for Adrenogenital Syndrome in females?
Cortisol administered to reduce circulating androgens. Develops further as typical female.
62
Who is David Reimer?
An example of ablatio penis; underwent surgery to create female genitals at 7 months, treated with oestrogen, and was raised as a female.
63
What happened to David Reimer at age 15?
He transitioned to become a male.
64
What is orchidectomy?
Removal of testes.
65
What are the effects of orchidectomy on sexual behavior?
Causes reduction in sexual interest/behavior, with variable rate and degree of loss. Reduction of hair on torso, limbs, and face, increase in fat on hips and chest, softening of the skin, reduction in muscle mass
66
What study was done related to orchidectomies?
Bremer, 1959 Studied sex offenders; of 102, only 3 were reoffenders.
67
How can the effects of orchidectomy be reversed?
By replacement injections of testosterone.
68
Is there a correlation between sex drive and testosterone levels in healthy men?
No, they are uncorrelated.
69
What hormone restores copulatory behavior in primates, not rodents?
Dihydrotestosterone.
70
What is the relationship between hormone release and female sexual behavior in rats?
Close relationship with the oestrus cycle, suggesting hormonal control.
71
What is the effect of ovariectomy on female sexual behavior?
Reduces proceptive and receptive behaviors.
72
What can induce oestrus in female animals that have undergone an ovariectomy?
Injection of oestradiol followed by progesterone 1.5 days late.
73
What is a notable behavior of female primates regarding copulation?
They are motivated to copulate during periods of non-fertility.
74
What effect does ovariectomy have on sexual desire in human females?
Reduces sexual desire, but supplements can rectify this.
75
What are the side effects of anabolic steroid use?
Cardiovascular effects, liver tumors, muscle spasms, acne, nausea, depression ## Footnote It does not enhance sexual function and can lead to sterility.
76
How does sexual orientation differ among individuals?
Influenced by genes and (in animals) hormonal exposure during perinatal development.
77
What effect does perinatal castration have on sexual preference (in animals)?
Increases preference for sex with males.
78
What effect does perinatal testosterone exposure have on females (animals)?
Increases preference for sex with other females
79
What is the fraternal birth order effect?
A man is more likely to be gay if he has more older brothers; increases by 33.3% for each older brother.
80
What does the maternal immune hypothesis suggest?
Mothers develop an immune response to masculinizing hormones from male fetuses, which suppress the effects of masculinising hormones in younger sons
81
At what age do most people in Western countries experience their first feelings of sexual attraction?
Age 10.
82
What did LeVay (1991) find regarding the hypothalamus in gay males?
One hypothalamic nucleus was intermediate in size between that of female and male heterosexuals.
83
What are brain areas that differ between men and women?
Lenroot & Giedd, 2010 Females have a larger hippocampus - this area has more oestradiol receptors than androgen receptors Males have a larger amygdala, where there is a higher concentration of androgen receptors
84
Handedness
Theory that androgens slow development of the left hemisphere of the brain, giving the right more chance to become dominant (Geschwind, 1983)
85
Digit ration
Prenatal testosterone linked with lengths of index and ring fingers (Manning et al., 2002)
86
Turner Syndrome
Individual has one X chromosome, or one and a bit. May have underdeveloped ovaries. Sex hormone therapy can be used to induce puberty
87
Klinefelter syndrome
Individual has XXY chromosomes. Extra X interferes with the testosterone (and development of testes). Testosterone replacement therapy may improve energy levels and facilitate effects of puberty
88
How do hormones change over the menstrual cycle?
Progesterone - shows gradual increase and peaks midway through luteal phase (after ovulation) Oestradiol - shows increase just before ovulation, at end of follicular phase and just before luteal phase (is also a little higher when progesterone peaks) Both decline after middle luteal phase if egg is not fertilised
89
How do hormones change throughout the day?
Fluctuate Testosterone peaks in the morning in men Oestradiol levels also seem peak in the morning in women Levels decline with age
90
Activational effects
Transient effects that result from fluctuations in hormone levels
91
Organisational effects
Long lasting effects of early sex hormone exposure
92
Is testosterone solely responsible for sexual functioning?
Bagatell et al., 1994 Testosterone levels suppressed in men Those who received testosterone replacement did not show increased sexual behaviour or desire
93
When are women most likely to innitiate sex?
Around ovulation
94
Ovulatory shift hypothesis
Changes in sexual preferences over the menstrual cycle. During ovulation: Prefence for masculine faces, deeper voices, confident and competitive men Challenge with consistency of effects (Harris, 2013)
95
Effect of testosterone on aggression
Beeman, 1947 Injections of testosterone in male mice increases aggression, whereas castration reduces aggression
96
Relationship between sex hormones and eating behaviour
In rats, ovariectomy led to increased food intake, and was reduced through administration of oestrogens (Butera, 2010) Progesterone and testosterone generally stimulate appetite Food intake appears to be lower at ovulation

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