Skils, Stages Of Learning, Feedback, Guidance Flashcards
(109 cards)
1
Q
What is a skill
A
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
2
Q
Characteristics of a skilled performance
A
- Aesthetically pleasing
- Consistent
- Efficient
- Fluent
- Accurate
- Controlled
- Economical
3
Q
What are the 6 continua of skill classification
A
- Open-closed
- Gross-fine
- Self-externally paced
- Simple-complex
- Discrete-serial-continuous
- Low-high
4
Q
What does the continua open-closed describe + example
A
Open - unpredictable environment, decisions made during skill - e.g pass in hockey
Closed - unchanging, predictable environment, decisions made before hand - e.g javelin throw
5
Q
What does the continua gross-fine describe + example
A
Gross - large muscle groups - e.g weightlifting
Fine - smaller muscle groups, fine, controlled movements - e.g rifle shooting
6
Q
What does the continua self-externally paced describe + example
A
Self-paced - performer controls speed skill is performed and started - e.g conversion in rugby
Externally-paced - no control of speed of skill and when is started - e.g sailor dictated by starting horn + wind
7
Q
What does the continua simple-complex describe + example
A
Simple - few decisions + basic skill that is easy to master - e.g forward roll
Complex - many decisions + difficult to master - e.g triple front somersault
8
Q
What does the continua discrete-serial-continuous describe + example
A
Discrete - skill has distinct beginning and end, one short sharp action - e.g a basketball free throw
Serial - several discrete skills linked together - e.g a trampoline routine
Continuous - skill has no clear beginning or end (cycle) - e.g frontcrawl swimming action
9
Q
What does the low-high continua describe + example
A
Low - a skill that is easily broken down into subroutines - e.g swimming can be broke into kick arms and body position
High - not easily broken down into subroutines - e.g a volley in football
10
Q
Definition of transfer of learning
A
The effect of learning + performing of one skill on the learning + performing of another skill
11
Q
What are the 4 types of transfers of learning
A
- Positive transfer
- Negative transfer
- Zero transfer
- Bilateral transfer
12
Q
Definition of positive transfer
A
When the learning of one skill aids the learning of another skill
13
Q
When does positive transfer occur + example
A
When 2 skills are similar in shape and form - e.g the action of the overarm volleyball serve will help a tennis serve
14
Q
How do you create positive transfer
A
- generate realism (cones to people during small sided games to practice v drags)
- ensure first skill is well learnt before moving to an advanced skill to allow for slow, steady progress where coach can praise for correct adaptations
15
Q
Definition of negative transfer
A
When the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another skill
16
Q
When does negative transfer usually occur + example
A
There is a familiarity with the sporting environment where the skill is used that causes confusion- e.g both tennis + badminton are played on courts with a net, but badminton serve uses wrist and tennis uses arm
17
Q
What are the causes of negative transfer
A
- first skill hasn’t been fully learnt/over-learned
- poor coaching - coach doesn’t explain differences or correct technique
- conflicting skills are taught close together
- a familiar stimulus/cue requiring a new response
18
Q
Definition of zero transfer
A
When the learning of one skill has no effect on the learning of another skill
19
Q
When does zero transfer occur + example
A
The 2 skills have no similarities and aspects of confusion - e.g an archery shot and a lunge in fencing have nothing to do with each other so won’t affect each other
20
Q
Definition of bilateral transfer
A
When the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb
21
Q
When does bilateral transfer occur + example
A
E.g being able to kick football with both feet - provides greater opportunities and tactical advantage
22
Q
What are the 3 methods of presenting practice
A
Whole practice
Whole part whole practice
Progressive part practice
23
Q
What is whole practice
A
Involves performing skill in its entirety without breaking it into subroutines
24
Q
When is whole practice most appropriate
A
- the skill is fast, ballistic and discrete (e.g tennis serve)
- the performer is advanced in the autonomous stage of learning, when movement is detailed and precise, and able to cope with demands of the task
- the links between subroutines need to be maintained (e.g tramp routine has to performed in specific order)
- skill is highly organised
25
Example of when to use whole practice
Golf swing performed by an experienced player as it is discrete, fast and hard to break down. Also as an expert only needs to fine tune
26
Advantages of whole practice
- creates fluency + promotes understanding as gives feel for the whole skill + links between subroutines are maintained
- more realistic so helps produce effect of positive transfer between skills in training + on pitch
- helps make skill consistent, good habits + perform automatically
27
Disadvantages of whole practice
- may place unnecessary demands on the performer who may not cope with all aspects of the skill (beginner)
- possibility of fatigue as have to complete whole task without break
- too much info to process
28
What is whole part whole practice
Attempt whole skill to get a feel, each part practised individually or specific weakness, then put back into whole skill
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When is whole part whole practice used
When a beginner is doing a complex task + need to concentrate on one part of the skill to get right before making progress (maintaining links between subroutines)
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Example of whole part whole practice
Fairly experienced volleyball player has a problem with the spike so whole action looked at then specific issue with arm action is identified and corrected
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Advantages of whole part whole practice
- can provide motivation when success is achieved by correcting a long-standing weakness
- provides immediate feedback + therefore corrects errors + allows corrections to be integrated into whole action, improving performance
- fluency and integration of subroutines can be maintained while errors are corrected
32
Disadvantages of whole part whole practice
- may produce negative transfer effects unless coach integrates part back into whole in the same session while corrections are still fresh
- more time consuming than doing whole thing
33
What is progressive part practice
Practising first part of skill then adding parts gradually (chaining used for serial skills)
34
When is progressive part practice used
- skill is low organised + can be broken down so each part is clear
- skill is serial so chaining can occur until skill is complete
- skill is complex as one complex feature can be isolated
35
Example of progressive part practice
Dance routine could be developed by teaching each part of the sequence in order
36
Advantages of progressive part practice
- can rest, fatigue is reduced
- builds initial understanding and may improve confidence
- able to focus on one aspect of the task + correct specific weakness
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Disadvantages of progressive part practice
- time consuming + neglect feel of whole task + ignore links between subroutines
- danger of negative transfer between each sequence of skill (ensure first part is well learned before progressing)
38
What are the 4 types of practice
1. Massed
2. Distributed
3. Variable
4. Mental
39
What is massed practice
Continuous with no rest intervals during the session
40
When is massed practice used
- closed (habitual skills)
- fine skills - won’t lead to fatigue
- discrete skills
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Advantages of massed practice
- promotes fitness
- skill becomes almost automatic so becomes habitual and can repeat consistently (sense of kinasthesis)
- motor programmes can be stored more easily so can be recalled
- efficient use of time (short sessions)
42
Disadvantages of massed practice
- causes fatigue which leads to injury or bad habits
- no time for feedback - bad habits
- high demand so may lose motivation
- danger of negative transfer if coach doesn’t mirror conditions of a game
43
Example of massed practice
Basketball player repeatedly practicing a free throw
44
What is distributed practice
Involves rest intervals during session
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When is distributed practice used
- max. Effort power based activities
- complex skill
- externally paced skill
- continuous skill
- open skill
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Advantages of distributed practice
- allows recovery + good for beginners as there is time for feedback and mental practice
- less chance of injury and safer way to practice dangerous activities
- less mental pressure so more motivated
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Disadvantages of distributed practice
- time consuming so can’t use in short sessions (not good for expert players)
- negative transfer if coach doesn’t integrate the session
48
Example of distributed practice
A swimmer practising stroke technique in training
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What is varied practice
Changing practice type and practice drills
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When is varied practice used
- skill is open as allows adaptation of the environment
- skill is complex
- skill is externally paces
- skill is continuous
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Advantages of varied practice
- increases motivation due to less tedium
- builds a schema (ability to take something + adapt it to a different environment)
- allows adaptation
52
Disadvantages of varied practice
- time consuming
- risk of negative transfer
- too demanding - too much to focus on
- causes fatigue
53
Example of varied practice
Players practising a football pass
54
What is mental practice
Going over a skill in mind without movement (internal - emotions, external - mental picture of environment)
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When do you use mental practice
- skill is serial
- skill is complex
- beginner - basics in parts, usually in rest of distributed practice
- expert - whole task before doing it
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Advantages of mental practice
- improves confidence + lowers anxiety
- better prepared - better reactions
- improves decision making
- builds motor programs
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Disadvantages of mental practice
- what is pictured has to be right
- has to be in a calm environment
58
Example of mental practice
A diver going over a dive before a competition
59
What are the 3 stages of learning
1. The cognitive stage
2. The associative stage
3. The autonomous stage
60
What is the cognitive stage
- movement may lack coordination + include many mistakes
- performer needs to think while using feedback
- trial and error may be used
- motor programme not developed
61
Example of the cognitive stage
A beginner watching a demo + working out what needs to be done
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What is the associative stage
- motor programmes start to be formed
- practice is used to perfect the movement (trial and error)
- movements are compared to more perfect example (modelling) and are smoother
63
Example of associative stage
Regularly practicing on the ice to learn figure skating
64
What is the autonomous stage
- motor programmes are formed
- task is completed with efficiency + attention to detail
- automatic control - the performer may use open-loop control
- must continue to practice to stay at this phase (expert)
65
What is feedback
Using info after response to correct errors
66
6 types of feedback
1. Positive - what you got right —> repetition
2. Negative - what you got wrong —> error avoidance
3. Extrinsic - from an outside source
4. Intrinsic - from within (kinaesthesis) —> replication/repetition
5. Knowledge of results - info about outcome —> motivation
6. Knowledge of performance - about technique, movement patterns —> improved performance + consistency
67
Benefits of feedback
- builds confidence which motivates which encourages continued practice
- makes the stimulus response bond stronger which makes skills habitual
- corrects errors which directly improves performance
- develops motor programmes which promotes fluency of skill
68
How do you make feedback effective
- make sure it’s accurate, relevant + understood
- give it immediately
- make it appropriate e.g age, stage of learning, maturity, degree of motivation
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Example of effective feedback
Positive for a novice so they know what to repeat, boosts confidence and provides a sense of achievement which will result in further effort applied
70
What is guidance
A way of enhancing the learning of a performer or a way of offering assistance
71
What are the 4 types of guidance
1. Visual
2. Verbal
3. Manual
4. Mechanical
72
What is visual guidance + an example
A demonstration of what to do - e.g a swimming teacher showing the front crawl leg kick using their arms
73
Advantages of visual guidance
- creates mental image for performer to recreate
- builds motor programme allowing skill to become autonomous with practice
- highlights weakness showing what to avoid
- good for early learning as language isn’t a barrier
74
Disadvantages of visual guidance
- must be accurate and to clear to prevent wrong actions from being learned
- learner must be capable of copying
75
What is verbal guidance + example
An explanation of what to do - e.g a coach explaining a formation in hockey
76
Advantages of verbal guidance
- compliments visual guidance
- can be used for technical or tactical help
- can highlight a coaching point, drawing attention to specific elements of a skill
77
Disadvantages of verbal guidance
- must be clear, accurate and correct
- can overload performer with too much info if not brief
- may be misunderstood leading to an incorrect action
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What is manual guidance + example
Provides physical support - e.g a coach supporting a front somersault on a trampoline
79
Advantages of manual guidance
- eliminates danger/reduces risk
- gives feel for motion allowing replication of action and mental rehearsal
- gives confidence as skill is performed correctly or they feel supported
80
Disadvantages of manual guidance
- may interfere with kinaesthesis if overused so should be removed as soon as possible
- may depend on the guidance too much so unable to do skill unaided
- lose motivation if can’t do skill without help
81
What is mechanical guidance + example
Using a physical device to aid movement - e.g using a float in swimming to provide buoyancy allowing correct body position
82
Advantages of mechanical guidance
- gives feel of whole skill, building kinaesthesis
- builds confidence as success can be achieved
- prevents/reduces chance of injury
83
Disadvantages of mechanical guidance
- may interfere with kinaesthesis if overused
- performers become reliant on aid and confidence and motivation can be lost if performer can’t do skill without the aid
- requires specialist equipment which can be expensive
84
Learning curve
An illustration that shows how the rate of a performer doing a closed skill over a period of time can vary
85
Learning plateau
A period during performance when there are no signs of improvement
86
What happens in stage 1 of learning curve
Rate of learning is slow, performance level is poor as performer is new to the task and in cognitive stage of learning so working out required sub routines
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What happens in stage 2 of learning curve
Rapid acceleration in the rate of learning as performer has begun to master the task + gain some success, providing reinforcement and motivation
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What happens in stage 3 of learning curve
No improvement in the rate of learning + performance has reached a plateau (stays same level)
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What happens in stage 4 of learning curve
Period towards the end of the task when, perhaps due to fatigue, the performance may deteriorate
90
What is drive reduction theory
There is a drop in the rate of improvement + performance may start to get worse
91
Why might a plateau occur
1. Lack of motivation- lack of incentive or rewards may cause performer to lose drive
2. Boredom- repetitive nature of closed skill
3. Coaching- use incorrect instructions or practice methods so skill isn’t done properly
4. Limit of ability- reached full extent of ability, don’t have underlying skill level
5. Targets set too low- doesn’t allow use of full range of skills so limits improvement
6. Fatigue- continuous action over extended period of time
92
Solutions to plateau affect
1. Extend task- new challenge to test performer + new targets set
2. New coach- raise performance by offering more praise/positive reinforcement—motivation
3. A rest - to avoid fatigue
4. Add more variety- avoid boredom
5. Explain concept of plateau- don’t take responsibility for lack of improvement
6. Feedback- improve performance and motivation
93
Who created operant conditioning and what is it
Skinner - behaviourist theory that has 3 fundamental factors:
1. Trial and error learning
2. Environment manipulation to allow for correct skill to be developed
3. Shapes behaviour through reinforcement and punishment
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What is positive reinforcement
Providing a positive experience when a skill or subroutine is performed correctly e.g positive feedback, praise strengthens the correct stimulus response bond
95
What is negative reinforcement
The removal of unpleasant experience when a skill is performed correctly which strengthens the correct stimulus response bond
96
What is punishment
Providing an unpleasant experience when a skill or subroutine is performed incorrectly which weakens the incorrect stimulus response bond
97
Who created observational learning and what is it
Bandura, it is a social learning theory where behaviour is learned through watching and copying others and learning is more likely if you follow 4 processes :
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor production
4. Motivation
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What is the attention process of observational learning
Making the demo attractive to the performer:
- sell demo - make it stand out/memorable
- explain why they’re learning it
- accurate and correct
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What is the retention process of observational learning
Remembering the demo and being able to recall it :
- break info into chunks
- repeat info
- immediate practice of skill
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What is the motor production process of observational learning
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task:
- make sure task is set to correct level of the performer
- gradually make task more complex
- give time for task to be practiced before moving on
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What is the motivation process of observational learning
Having the drive to do the task :
- give praise or rewards
- offer positive feedback and positive reinforcement
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How can observational learning be applied effectively
- provide frequent practices and the chance for over-learning
- minimise any delay between demo and practice
- demos should be given by role model or significant other of a similar age and ability
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Good things about observational learning theory
- good for cognitive learners as it will create a mental image that they can recreate
- good for simple skills that don’t require much decision making as can just be replicated
- good for closed skills as environment is predictable and unchanging so can focus on how to perform the skill
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What isn’t good about observational learning theory
- not as appropriate for open skills as require performer to know when to perform skill and adapt the skill but OL doesn’t allow for understanding
- don’t have independence to correct own mistake so rely on coach
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Who created social development theory and what is it
Vygotsky, says that learning takes place through interaction with others (guided learning) and the advice and demos of values and actions of MKO (coach, peers) which is inter-psychological learning. Intra-psychological learning is learning that takes place within the learning ( cognitive processes and analysis)
106
What are the stages of constructivism within the intra-psychological learning phase
Zone of proximal development = an assessment of what they need to do next to learn the skill
1. What can I do alone - can somersault from my knees and land on my back
2. What can I do with help - can somersault with support
3. What can I not do yet - can’t somersault in a routine
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How do you use social development theory to develop skills
- targeted coaching and setting individual challenges just beyond their current level
- get individual to reflect on what they can do on own and with help
- reciprocal teaching e.g coach telling hockey team to split into 4s + work on getting around players
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Why will social development theory bring about learning
- able to gain knowledge and understanding so performer is independent and can adapt
- clear steps gives goals + builds motivation as know route and gives manageable steps
- sense of achievement when progress leading to motivation and confidence
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Why won’t social development theory bring about learning
- step might be too big (challenge) so loose confidence as not progressing and demotivation and learning stops
- more challenging with young children as requires understanding
