Slide Week 2 Flashcards
(86 cards)
1
Q
Human Development
A
The Study of changes in people from conception until death
2
Q
What is Development
A
- The sequence of age-related changes that occur as we move from birth through to death
Encapsulates:
- Physical, emotional and cognitive changes
- Nature vs Nurture
- Continuity vs Transition
- Person vs Situation
3
Q
Continuity vs Transition
A
The study of what stays the same in our lives vs what is changing
4
Q
Types of Developmental Research
A
- Cross Sectional
- Longitudinal
5
Q
Cross Sectional Research
A
- Studies various groups by category such as by age
- studies done in present time
6
Q
Longitudinal studies
A
Studies a group of people over time to see how attitudes or behaviour change
7
Q
Advantages of Cross Sectional Studies
A
- Gives information about age differences
- Are quick to do
- Are inexpensive
- Can supply a large sample
8
Q
Disadvantages of Cross Sectional Studies
A
- Cohorts are difficult to separate
- Can be generalised
- No Historical continuity
9
Q
Advantages of Longitudinal Studies
A
- Gives information about age changes
- Increased reliability
- More in depth information per participant
10
Q
Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies
A
- Expensive
- Time consuming
- Restricted by generalisability
- Small sample affected by dropouts.
11
Q
Preferential Looking Behaviours
A
- Studies babies and gives them two images to look at
- Seeks to determine which image the prefer to look at.
12
Q
Habituation Method
A
- Studies in babies to determine if they decrease their response to a stimulus if they are exposed to it repeatedly
- This concept states that an animal or a human may learn to ignore a stimulus because of repeated exposure to it.
13
Q
Attachment Theory
A
Studies Attachment and separation anxiety
14
Q
What is Attachment
A
- refers to the emotional bonds of connection between infants and their caregivers
15
Q
What is Separation Anxiety
A
The emotional distress displayed by infants when separated from their primary caregivers who they have formed an attachment with
16
Q
Harry Harlow - 1959
A
- Questions why do attachments form
- Asks do we seek food or comfort
- Studied infant monkeys with artificial mothers
17
Q
Artificial Mother Experiment
A
Monkeys separated from mothers at birth were raised using two artificial mothers
- For four newborn monkeys the cloth mother lactated and the wire mother did not
- For another four newborn monkeys, the wire mother lactated and the cloth mother did not
Found there was a preference for cloth mother – regardless of which mother fed them, especially when fearful
18
Q
What happens when attachments are not properly formed
A
Harlow found isolated infant monkeys showed:
- withdrawal
- rocking
- huddling
- unable to form sexual relationships as adults
- when females became mothers they tended to ignore them and abuse them when they felt distressed
19
Q
John Bowlby - 1969
A
- Studied Attachment and Loss in orphans from WWII
- found infants biologically motivated to form attachments as a survival technique
- Found infants instinctively behave endearingly to trigger affection and protection in adults
- Repeated experiences with caregivers establishes a working model
20
Q
Mary Ainsworth - 1967, 1978
A
- Developed the Strange Situation Procedure to assess quality of attachments between infants and caregivers
- Attachment depends on the relationship between mother and infant
- Babies not passive bystanders, their reactions can affect the caregivers behaviour
21
Q
There are three types of attachment
A
- Secure Attachment
- Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment -
- Avoidant Attachment
22
Q
Secure Attachment
A
Child tends to be playful, less inhibited, exploration-oriented, sociable
23
Q
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
A
- Child tends to engage in visual checking signalling to reestablish contact.
- Calling, pleading, moving to reestablish contact, clinging
24
Q
Avoidant attachment
A
Child tends to maintain proximity while avoiding close contact
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Percentage of Attachment styles
* Secure: 75%
* Resistant: 15%
* Avoidant: 15%
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Response to Separation Anxiety - Attachment Style
* Secure: Distressed
* Resistant: intense distress
* Avoidant: No Sign of distress
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Stranger Anxiety response - Attachment Style
* Secure: Avoidance when alone, friendly when with parent.
* Resistant: Fear of stranger
* Avoidant: Plays with stranger
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Parent Caregiving Style - Warm/Responsive
* Parent generally warm and responsive
* Good at reading cues and knowing when to be supportive and when to allow autonomy
* Creates secure attachment
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Infant Attachment Style: Secure Attachment
* child welcomes close contact with caregiver
* caregiver becomes a secure base while exploring the environment
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Adult Attachment Style: Secure
* finds it relatively easy to get close to others
* comfortable depending on others and having others rely on them
* no real fear of abandonment
* not afraid of others getting too close
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Parent Caregivint Style: Cold/Rejecting
* distant, rejecting and not very responsive
* Child takes a lesser priority with concerns possibly lying elsewhere
* Creates Avoidant Attachment Style
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Infant Attachment Style: Avoidant Attachment
* Insecure caregiver bond
* Characterised by little separation anxiety
* Tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver
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Adult Attachment Style: Avoidant
* Uncomfortable getting close to others
* Difficulty trusting partners
* Difficulty allowing them to depend on us
* Not comfortable getting too close to others
* Finds intimacy difficult with love partners
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Parents caregiving style: Ambivalent/inconsistent
* Inconsestent in response, sometimes warm sometimes cold
* Appears to have own agenda
* Is loving but doesn't always show it in the best way
* Creates Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment style
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Infant Attachment Style: Anxious/Ambivalent
* Insecure caregiver bond
* Characterised by strong separation anxiety
* Tendency contact initiated by the caregivers after separation
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Adult Attachment Style: Anxious/Ambivalent
* Feels others are reluctant to get as close as they would like
* Often worry that partner doesn't love them
* Has fear of being abondened
* Wants to merge with partner which can sometimes push them away
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Points about Attachment Theory: The Strange Sitution
* Attachments can be reversed if conditions that set created the attachment changes
* There is an interaction of temperament and attachment style
* Attachment styles may define a RELATIONSHIP, but not individuals
* Person vs Situation is important as there are multiple causes for behaviour
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Person vs situation debat
* Asks whether it is the person or situation that affects behaviour
* This relates to nature vs nurture
* The view is that there are usually multiple causes for behaviour
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Stage Theories of Development
* Describing development in terms of stages
* Progression occurs in a particular order related to age
* A stage is a developmental period that has characteristic patterns of behaviour
* Movement through stages is prompted by need to make sense of experiences and desire to construct and understand the world
40
Types of Development Theory
* Continuous Development
* says that change happens on a continuous scale without change
* Discontinuous Development
* says change happens in stages usually group by age
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3 main Development Theories
* Cognitive Development - Jean Piaget
* Personality Development - Erik Erikson
* Moral Development - Kohlbergs Stage Theory
42
* Jean Piaget - 1952
* Cognitive development refers to transitions in patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
• All children progress through 4 stages of cognitive
development in the same order – although exact ages may vary
• Believed that intelligence was not random, but was a set of organized cognitive structures that the infant actively constructed
• This construction occurs through the adaptation to the environment
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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
* Stage 1 - Sensory Motor Period
* Stage 2 - Preoperational Period
* Stage 3 - Concrete Opertional
* Stage 4 - Formal Operational
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Piaget's Sensorimotor Period
* Birth thru 2 years
* Coordination of sensory input and motor responses
* Development of object permanence
* child recognises that objects
continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
* Innate reflexes at the beginning of the stage
* Use mental symbols to represent objects
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Piaget's Preoperational Period
* 2 yrs thru 7 yrs
* Development of Symbolic Thought
* Marked by:
* irreversibility
* centration
* egocentrism
* animism
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Irreversibility
A stage in early child development in which a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone.
47
Centration
* The tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation
* Neglects the possibillty of other, possibly relevant aspects
* eg: Perceiving that "Mummy cannot also be a Tara or Jason's sister or a wife, sister or daughter
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Egocentrism
* Not able to differentiate between self and other
* In children usually cannot see that Mother is separate from themselves
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Piaget's Concrete Operational
* 7 Yrs thru 11 Yrs
* Mental Operations applied to concrete events
* Mastery of Conservation - The ability to perceive volume when presented in different shapes
* Develops understanding of Heirarchical Classification
* Acquisition of reversibility – allows a child to undo an action
* Acquisition of decentration – allows the child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously
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Heirarchical Conservation
Hierarchical Classification is a system of grouping things according to a hierarchy, or levels and orders.
51
Mastery of Conservation
* Conservation refers to a logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size, according to the psychologist Jean Piaget.
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Piaget's Formal Operational Period
* 11 years thru to adulthood
* Mental Operations applied to abstract Ideas
* Characterised by:
– more systematic in problem-solving in adolescence
– Enjoyment in abstract thinking and contemplation
– Envision possible courses of action
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Animism
The Belief that all things are living
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Piaget's Conservation Task
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Mastery of Conservation: Pendulum Problem
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Points of Evaluation: Cognitive Development
* Piaget undestates how social interactions influence cognitive development
* Piaget's tasks are culturaly biased
* Schooling and literacty affects rates of development
* Piaget is vague about the processes that give rise to children's thinking and what produces cognitive growth
57
* Erik Erikson - 1953
* Developed Eight stages of lifespan
* Each stage comprised of two psychosocial crises, one positive and one negative
* Movement from one stage:
* biological issue related to age
* resolved socially
* leads to identity formation and personality development
58
Erikson's stages of Psychosocial Development
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Erickson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage One - 1st Year of Life
* Trust vs Mistrust
* Is my world predictable and supportive?
* the infant must depend solely on the caregiver which should lead to a trusting view of the world
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Trust vs Mistrust
* Stage one
* 1st year of life
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Erickson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Two - 2nd - 3rd Years of life
* Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
* Can i do things myself or must I always rely on others
* The child begins to take personal responsibility
* should begin to acquire a sense of self sufficiency
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Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
* Stage Two of development
* 2nd - 3rd year of life
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Erickson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Three - 4th - 6th year of life
* Initiative vs Guilt
* Am I good or bad?
* Children learn to get along with family members
* This tends to lead towards self confidence
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Initiative vs Guilt
* Stage Three of Ericksons Theory of Personality Development
* 4th - 6th Year of Life
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Erickson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Four - 6th Year of life to Puberty
* Industry vs Inferiority
* Am I competent or am I worthless
* Children must function socially outside of their family
* This develops a sense of competence
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Industry vs Inferiority
* Stage Four
* 6th Year to Puberty
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Erickson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Five - Adolescence
* Identity vs Role Confusion
* Who am I and where am I going
* James Marcia's Four Identity Status
* Identity Acheivement
* Foreclosure
* Moratorium
* Identity Diffusion
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Identity vs Role Confusion
* Stage Five
* Adolescence
* Add James Marcia's 1980 - Four Identity Status
*
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James Marcia - 1980
* developed Four Identity Status based on Eriksons Identity vs Role Confusion stage of development in adolescence
* Identity Acheivement
* Identity Moratorium
* Foreclosure
* Identity Diffusion
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Marcia's Identity Acheivement
* Active exploration of beliefs and values
* Crisis of values is experienced
* Strong commitment to a highly developed set of beliefs and values.
* Characterized by high commitment and high exploration.
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Marcia's Identity Moratorium
* The status in which an adolescent is currently in a crisis
* Exploration of various commitments and is ready to make choices
* No commitment Has been made to these choices yet.
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Marcia's Identity Diffusion
* Adolescent has not experienced a crisis yet and is not committed to own ideals or values
* Finds Commitments difficult
* Struggle with relating to others and society
* Extremely impressionable when it comes to new ideas and beliefs because they do not value their own.
* Often feel lost in life and express no interest in improving themselves or creating long-term goals
* May seek gratification through external forces
* Has difficulty exploring own Identity seeking identity
73
Marcia's Identity Foreclosure
* Where an Adolescent has an identity but hasn't explored other options or ideas.
* Most common in young adolescents
* Individual has just adopted the traits and qualities of parents and friends.
* Has a commitment to their values and ideals but may not yet have experienced a crisis
* May have committed too soon to one set of ideals without questioning their own values or beleifs
74
Erikson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Six - Early Adulthood
* Intimacy vs Isolation
* Shall I share my life with another or live alone?
* The concern with the ability to share intimacy with others
* Tends to lead to empathy and openness
75
Intimacy vs Isolation
* Stage Six
* Early Adulthood
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Erikso's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Seven - Middle Adulthood
* Generativity vs Stagnation
* Will I produce something of real value
* Self-Absorption involves concern for future generations
* Tends towards unselfish guidance of younger people
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Generativity vs Self Absorption
* Stage Seven
* Middle Adulthood
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Erikson's Theory of Personality Development
Stage Eight - Late Adulthood
* Integrity vs Despair
* Have I lived a full life?
* Involves overcoing the tendency to dwll on mistakes of the past
* Begins to manage the imminent prescence of death.
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Integrity vs Despair
* Stage Eight
* Late Adulthood
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Erikson's Theory of Development
Evaluation of strenghts & weaknesses
Theory accounts for continuity & transition in personality development
* Continuity → connection between early childhood experience and aspects of later personality
* Transition → shows how new challenges in social relationships stimulate personality growth throughout life
* Depends on illustrative case studies → may be interpreted in multiple ways
* Idealised description of "typical" developmental patterns → does not account for individual differences
81
* Lawrence Kohlberg 1969
* Developed Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
* Development of Moral Reasoning in childhood and adolescence
* Three premises underlying Moral Development
* Based on moral reasoning not moral action
* Unfolds in a stage like manner
* Based on a sense of social justice
* Six Stages across three levels
* Individual Orientation
* Social Orientation
* Ethical Orientation
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Stages of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
1. Preconventional Level
2. Conventional Level
3. Postconventional Level
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Kohlbergs **Preconventional** level of Moral Development
* Younger children think in terms of external authority
* Acts considered right or wrong based on potential punishment
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Kohlbergs **Postconventional** level of Moral Development
* Changes in adolscence towards more developed moral reasoning
* Acts are individually judged by a personal code of ethics
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Kohlbergs Conventional level of Moral Development
Older children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order
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Evaluation of Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development
* Universality
* Moral reasoning NOT moral action
* Gender Bias
* Hypothetial vs real-life issues
