Social and Multicultural Psychology

Question 1

dispositional attributions

Answer 1

• also known as internal attributions
• the cause of a behaviour is within the person

Example: failing is test is due to lack of effort in preparation

Question 2

situational attribution

Answer 2

• also known as external attributions
• the cause of a behaviour is outside the person

Example: failing a test is due to test unfairness

Question 3

consistency
distinctiveness
consensus

Answer 3

consistency = whether a person behaves the same way over time (if they dont… low consistency)

distinctiveness = whether a person’s behaviour is unique to the situation or stimulus (if it is not… low consistency)

consensus = whether people in the same situation tend to respond similarly (if most do not… low consensus)

Question 4

fundamental attribution bias (fundamentalmente una victima/el problema eres tú)

Answer 4

THE BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS is due to dispositional (internal) causes.

Tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal factors) and underestimate external (situational) factors. example: blaming the victim

Impacted by culture= teens/adults in NA= made more dispositional/internal attributions about others. Teens/adults in Asia= made more situational external attributions.

Question 5

actor observer bias

Answer 5

ONE’S OWN BEHAVIOUR is due to situational (external) factors and the BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS is due to dispositional (internal) factors

Question 6

self serving bias

Answer 6

when we describe OUR OWN BEHAVIOURS, attribute our successes to dispositional (internal) factors and our failures to situational (external) factors

Question 7

heuristics
availability vs. representative vs. simulation (and why is simulation different than the other 2?)

Answer 7

availability = people estimate the likelihood of a situation based on how easily they can recall it

representative = people make judgments about people or events based on what they believe is a typical example of a particular category (example - assuming a DV victim is a woman)

simulation = people develop mental images of situations and then use these mental images to make judgments about facts in their lives. Study= man who misses flight 30mins vs 5mins. Different than all other heuristics bc it also affects how others will feel.

Question 8

cognitive dissonance (4 Methods and which is more effective)

Answer 8

people change their attitudes to reduce the aversive arousal they experience when they become aware of inconsistent in their cognitions

(in other words - people change their attitudes to match their actions)

4 methods: replace/substract the dissonant cognition, add a consonant cognition, increase importance of a consonant cognition and decrease the importance of the dissonant cognition

The most effective is: decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition.**

Question 9

self-perception theory

Answer 9

people infer their attitudes as well as their emotions by observing their own behaviour

example: I just gave a speech about ___________, I must really like it

Tie to overjustification effect = when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behaviour they’ll think they’re performing due to external rewards which will cause intrinsic motivation to decline

Question 10

overjustification hypothesis

Answer 10

people lose interest in previously desirable activities after performing them for too much justification (I.e. kids markers study)

Tied to self-perception theory

Question 11

primacy effect

Answer 11

when there is a long gap between a speech and the desired action, the idea presented first will be remembered best. Why? Bc short term memory material (recency effect) was left unattended and it wasn’t transferred to long term. So only long term info remains.

Question 12

recency effect

Answer 12

when there is a short gap between a speech and the desired action, the idea presented last will be remembered best

Question 13

persuasion & characteristics of the source/message/audience

Answer 13

source
- if the message is unimportant, the likeability/similarity to self/physical attractiveness is important
- if the message is important, the credibility (trustworthiness and expertise) is important (I.e. think pastors)
- inverted U for message discrepancies = moderate differences are best.
- if you’re super trustworthy then it’s a linear relationship with message discrepancy

message
- Scare tactics work best when there’s a real reason to be scared, and you also show how to fix the problem. (Mixed research on how much fear is needed to be effective)
- presentation of the info: If your message comes first, it usually has a bigger impact (Primacy Effect). If it comes later, it matters more when opinions are checked soon after not long after (Recency Effect).

audience
- moderate self-esteem, higher vulnerability, high involvement in idea/product are most easily persuaded. U shape. For age (YA & OA) and also lower IQ

Question 14

elaboration likelihood of persuasion

Answer 14

two ways people can be persuaded…

peripheral route = focuses on aspects that are not central to the message (example - attractiveness of the speaker)
central route = elaborating on the messages arguments

• central route usually results in enduring / resistant to change attitudes that are predictive of behavior

Question 15

superordinate goals

Answer 15

goals that can only be achieved with both groups working together and are of benefit to both parties

*reduces prejudice and discrimination. And inter group conflict.

Robbers cave & Jigsaw

Question 16

approach-approach conflict

approach-avoidance conflict

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Answer 16

approach-approach conflict = a person must choose between two favorable options. Not a dilemma since once the individual begins to approach one positive goal, the strength of the pull of the other positive goal decreases

approach-avoidance conflict = both options have pros/cons. Which makes it hard to choose to do or not do something. (Netflix or Hulu)

avoidance-avoidance conflict = the person must choose between two unfavorable options. This one tends to be most difficult to resolve and most stress inducing. (Sitting in traffic jam ve being stuck at airport)

Question 17

James-Lang theory of emotions

Answer 17

• emotions result from perceiving bodily reactions / responses

physical arousal then emotion

Question 18

Cannon-Bard theory of emotions

Answer 18

• emotions and physiological reactions occur at the same time
• think - cannon ball hits all at once

Question 19

Schacter’s two-factor theory

Answer 19

the experience of emotions is due to both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling (roller coaster arousal + label (anxiety or fear depending on person)
- attributed to concluding that misery loves company.
- also tied to epinephrine studies = created a physiological response Post injection of epi. If told about epi effects they just reported being aroused. When not told about the effects of epi they looked to environment to interpret how they felt.

Question 20

frustration aggression vs. social learning theory

Answer 20

frustration aggression = aggression is always due to frustration and frustration will always lead to some form of aggression

social learning theory = we learn to be aggressive by observing models behaving aggressively and by seeing others rewarded for aggression

Question 21

conformity

Answer 21

• influence by 3 main factors
• normative social influence = pressure to conform based on a need for approval. Explains conformity in NOT AMBIGUOUS/clear situations leading to public acceptance. Done to avoid ridicule/rejection.
• informational social influence = pressure to conform based on the belief that the other person is more knowledgeable. Explains conformity in AMBIGUOUS situations leading to private acceptance.*
• reference groups = based on people we like, admire, want to resemble

Question 22

obedience

Answer 22

• following a direct command, usually from someone in authority
• 3 key elements = power of the person in position of authority, who will be responsible for consequences, and gradualism

Question 23

deindividation

Answer 23

the process of letting go of one’s self-identity and adopting the identity of the group

Question 24

additive vs. disjunctive vs. conjunctive vs compensatory group tasks

Answer 24

additive = everyone’s efforts are combined

disjunctive = the performance of the most effective group member is used (example - who has the best idea?)

conjunctive = groups success is limited by the least effective member (example = one person makes a mistake and it effects everyone)

Compensatory= each member’s effort is averaged for a single project (ex= all group final scores are averaged and final average is final grade, no individual grades)

Question 25

social facilitation

Answer 25

when an individual's task performance is enhance by the mere presence of others (most common when the task is familiar simple)

Question 26

social inhibition

Answer 26

when an individual's task performance is comprimised by the mere presence of others (most common when the task is new or complex)

Question 27

etic vs. emic view of people

Answer 27

etic = traditional, everyone is the same regardess of cultural influences emic = multicultural, there is no single model that will suit everyone equally and cultural norms and values play a role

Question 28

acculturation vs. enculturation

Answer 28

acculturation = members of one culture learn about and adopt the beliefs / behaviours of another enculturation = learning more about one's own culture, influence primarily by family and home

Question 29

assimilation vs. separation vs. integration vs. marginalization

Answer 29

assimilation = **accept new culture**, reject own culture separation = **accept own culture**, reject new culture integration = accept new culture, accept own culture (**ACCEPT BOTH**) marginalization = reject both new culture and own culture (**REJECT BOTH**)

Question 30

cultural encapsulation

Answer 30

- significantly impedes effective psychotherapy - occurs when the therapist makes narrow assumptions about reality, minimizes cultural variation among individuals, disregards evidence about the superiority of the dominant culture, etc.

Question 31

high context vs. low context communication

Answer 31

high = situation and non-verbal cues significant affect the meaning of what is verbalized (in other words - the same words can have entirely different meaning depending on how and when they are said low = the meaning of what is communicated is based on what is explicitly said (in other words - say what you mean, be direct)

Question 32

4 stages of gay & lesbian development (Troi, senses confusion, but I assume he’s committed to singing)

Answer 32

(1) sensitization - feeling different as a child (2) identity confusion - recognition of homosexual feelings/impulses, denial/avoidance common (3) identity assumption - reduction in social isolation (4) commitment - openness about sexual orientation

Question 33

5 stages of racial identity development (Atkinson, mitten & Sue; Conform-DR-IA)

Answer 33

(1) conformity - preference for dominant culture (2) dissonance - beginning to appreciate pieces of minority culture, beginning to question dominant culture (3) resistance - strong sense of identification with minority culture, rejection of dominant culture (4) introspective - deeper analysis of feelings, beginning to see positives from both cultures (5) synergetic articulation and awareness - appreciation of both cultures

Question 34

5 stages of black identity development (Cross, PEIII)

Answer 34

(1) pre-encounter: idealize/prefer white culture, negative attitudes of black culture (2) encounter: question views of black and white culture due to exposure to racism (3) immersion-emersion: reject white culture and immerse in own black culture (4) internalization: have positive black identity and tolerate differences. (5) internalization-commitment: committed to social activism to reduce forms of oppression and have internalized black identity

Question 35

6 stages of white racial identity development (Helm, CDR-PIA)

Answer 35

(1) contact - white individuals are ignorant of their privilege / racism (2) disintegration - begin to feel uncomfortable about the advantages of being white (may deny existence of racism in order to cope) (3) reintegration - acknowledge white identity, endorses white racial superiority (4) pseudo-independence - beginning to question the proposition that Black's are innately inferior to Whites, being associating more with people of color (5) immersion/emersion - examination of self-identity (6) autonomy - achieves a positive redefinition of being White

Question 36

collateral culture

Answer 36

values family and social connectedness (example - Hispanic culture)

Question 37

treatment approaches for Hispanics

Answer 37

- active, concrete, solution-focused

Question 38

treatment approaches for African Americans

Answer 38

- establish a positive therapeutic alliance in first few sessions, convey respect, prioritize and egalitarian relationship, consider a multisystemic approach (school, church, social services, extended family)

Question 39

treatment approaches for Asian Americans

Answer 39

- structured approach, therapist is active and directive

Question 40

treatment approaches for Native Americans

Answer 40

- controversial opinions on this... some believe a non-directive approach is best, some believe it is bad; family therapy (including extended family members) should be used when possible -network therapy

Question 41

cultural syndromes

Answer 41

clusters of syndromes and attributions that tend to occur among people in specific groups/communities

Question 42

cultural idioms* of distress (think idiom= language that expresses distress)

Answer 42

share or collective ways of expressing distress that may not involve specific syndromes or symptoms example = somatization (stomach pains, cardiopulmonary symptoms), shared phrases used by members of different cultures to express distress and shared ways for talking about personal/social concerns

Question 43

cultural explanations /perceived causes

Answer 43

ways of explaining illness, symptoms, or distress

Question 44

internal responsibility, external control

Answer 44

"It's my fault and there's nothing I can do about it" *cant work with IC-IR

Question 45

external responsibility, external control

Answer 45

"It's society's fault and I can't do anything about it"

Question 46

external responsibility, internal control (IC- ER)

Answer 46

"It's society's fault and there IS something I can do about it" - cant work with IC-IR

Question 47

internal responsibility, internal control

Answer 47

"It's my fault and I can do something about it" - can’t work with IC-ER

Question 48

Robbers cave study & superordibate goals

Answer 48

Superord. Goals (goals that can be achieved only when hostile groups work together cooperatively) can reduce inter-group hostility… essentially helping enemies become friends

Question 49

Aversive vs symbolic vs ambivalent covert racism

Answer 49

All forms of covert racism. Aversive - holding egalitarian beliefs and consciously rejecting prejudice, meanwhile harbouring unconscious attitudes/biases against other racial groups. Typically acquired early in life. Symbolic: express racism indirectly often through opposition to policies and practices that are perceived as promoting racial equality Ambivalent: have positive and negative attitudes about minority group members. When these are in conflict>> emotional tension>>amplification of positive/negative attitudes

Question 50

Cultural paranoia (healthy vs functional)

Answer 50

Healthy: normal suspicion and distrust due to discrimination. These individuals are willing to self disclose to minority therapists but not white therapists unless the therapist talks to them about the paranoia and encourages the client to ID when it is vs not safe to disclose Functional: unhealthy and involves pervasive suspicion/distrust. Unwilling to disclose to minority or white therapist.

Question 51

Microassault vs microinsults vs microinvalidation

Answer 51

Microassault: old fashion racism, overt acts/name calling Microinsult: verbal & nonverbal messages that imply person of colour is dangerous or deviant to other races (got job bc of affirmative action) Microinvalidation: colour blindness, unwillingness to acknowledge race, assert race has no effect on success/outcomes (complimenting on good English when seeing minority)

Question 52

Ultimate attribution error (focus on both) vs group attribution error (focus on 1)

Answer 52

Ultimate attribution: Occurs when negative behaviours of members own in group are attributed to situational factors while negative out groups are attributed to dispositional factors & vice versa for positive behaviours Group attribution error: people believe that individual group member beliefs, attitudes and preferences are the same as those of all members of the group.

Question 53

False consensus error

Answer 53

Not an attributional bias Tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions, values and beliefs Study: people told they failed/pass, thought others would also fail/pass.

Question 54

Excitation transfer

Answer 54

Arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed erroneously to second stimulus (think bridge study)

Question 55

Representative heuristic is most similar to which fallacy

Answer 55

Base rate fallacy (tend. To ignore/underuse base rate information and to rely on instead on irrelevant information). Some believe base rate fallacy results from relying on the representative heuristic.

Question 56

Informational influence strongest when task is…

Answer 56

Ambiguous and difficult Informational influence: conform to judgements of others when they think others know more

Question 57

Infra humanization

Answer 57

Ingroup favoritism Outgroup derogation

Question 58

More likely to see altruistic vs egoistic motivation after what event?

Answer 58

Tragedy (I.e. 9/11)

Question 59

Causal attributions (optimistic vs pessimistic style)

Answer 59

Causal= inferences people draw about causes of own/others behaviours. Can be internal (dispositional) or external (situational). - optimistic style= external, unstable and specific - pessimistic style= internal, stable, global

Question 60

Kelley’s covariation model

Answer 60

People make attributions about others behaviours considering 3 types of information= 1) consensus 2) consistency & 3) distinctiveness. When all 3 are high= external attribution (hint: think of distinctiveness). When all 3 are low= internal attribution

Question 61

Automatic vs controlled cognitive processing and which causes cognitive errors

Answer 61

Automatic=fast/efficient/outside of awareness Controlled= slow+effortful+in awareness Automatic causes errors

Question 62

Confirmation bias

Answer 62

Tend to seek and pay attention to information that confirms our beliefs and ignores information that refutes it. *PLAYS role in maintaining self concept: we spend time with those who provide feedback/confirm our self concepts

Question 63

Illusory correlation vs illusory control

Answer 63

Correlation= overestimate the relationship between 2 variables that are not related or only slightly related. Role in negative stereotype prejudice Control= when people believe they can influence events outside of their control. Ex: winning ticket has fav #, blow in dice before rolling

Question 64

Base rate fallacy

Answer 64

Tend to ignore/underuse base rate information (information about most people) and instead to be influenced by distinctive features of the case being judged Ex= juries more likely to be persuaded by anecdotal information vs probability base rate info

Question 65

Gambler’s fallacy

Answer 65

People believe that a particular chance event is affected by previous events* or that chance will even out in short run. Ex= coin toss, 5xs next one will be tails, gambling machine

Question 66

Counterfactual thinking

Answer 66

(What if/if only thinking) Tend to imagine what might have happened/alternative scenarios/events could lead to different outcomes. Good or bad. Most likely to occur if event is personally significant and easy to imagine an alternative outcome

Question 67

Spotlight effect

Answer 67

Similar to imaginary audience in Elkin/Formal operations Piaget stage. Think people take note of actions/appearance

Question 68

Illusion of transparency

Answer 68

Similar to spotlight. People overestimate extent to which people can detect thoughts/feelings/internal states Study: gross drink, people know I hated it.

Question 69

Hindsight bias

Answer 69

Knew it all along effect Feeling like you predicted what happened/saw it happening= Overestimate likelihood that they could have predicted event that would occur. Why it occurs: 1) need to see world as orderly 2) reconstructive memory: automatically updated with new information

Question 70

Sunk cost fallacy (Concorde fallacy)

Answer 70

Tend to continue investing resources ($ or time) when they already invested significant resources that have not produced desired outcomes/are not recoverable.

Question 71

Simulation heuristic and connection to counterfactual thinking

Answer 71

Simulation heuristic requires counterfactual thinking

Question 72

Anchoring & adjustment heuristic

Answer 72

Estimate frequency by beginning with a starting point and then making up/down adjustments

Question 73

Social influence & psychological reactance (think COVID)

Answer 73

Occurs when people feel pressure to behave in a particular way threatens their personal freedom and they attempt to regain their freedom by doing the opposite of what has been requested or acting aggressively toward person who made the request

Question 74

Milgram study

Answer 74

More than pathological fringe (1/1,000) gave highest shock. No differences in genders. Replicated study (Burger) following APA guidelines found same findings. study modifications that gave different outcomes: in run down building, give orders by phone, teacher/learner in same room. Why it happened 1)agentic state (agent not executioner of orders) 2) fast pace of study not give people a chance to think/reflect on actions 3) high shock was gradually given so subjects didn’t recognize it was unreasonable

Question 75

Confirmity to group norms (sherif/ autokinetic phenomenon & asch studies)

Answer 75

Sherif= auto kinetic phonomenon> light study. Found people conformed answers/estimates to group norms (what others said) Asch= extended on sherif. In this study subjects also conformed when stimulus was both ambiguous and when other participants were wrong.

Question 76

Foot in the door tactic vs door in the face

Answer 76

Foot: small request>>big request. (Why it works= people like to act in consistent ways, saying no to second request would not be consistent) Door: big request>> small request (why it works=perceptual contrast- second is more reasonable and feeling need to reciprocate to seller’s concession by agreeing with second request)

Question 77

Helping in emergency situations (5 steps+obstacles)

Answer 77

1) notice event (might not notice due to: preoccupation with own thoughts+stimulus overload) 2)interpret event as emergency (might not happen due to: ambiguous situation+pluralistic ignorance (others don’t take action so you don’t) 3) assume responsability (might not happen due to: diffusion of responsability (less likely as numbers go up, more likely when only 1 bystander present) 4) determine how to help (if they don’t know how to help they won’t help) 5) decide whether to help or not (even if they’re competent they might not help bc of evaluation apprehension- concern of being judged by others negatively)

Question 78

Altruism vs egoistical helping

Answer 78

Empathy-Altruism hypothesis: empathic concern>>altruism helping (bc they feel concerned for their well-being) Negative state relief model: help others to reduce own distress (egoistic) Most support for empathy/atruism hypothesis. Also more likely to be sustained helping than with negative state relief model.

Question 79

Pettigrew’s Realistic conflict theory (discrimination/prejudice)

Answer 79

Competition between groups is due to competition for scarce resources. Evidence: robbers cave study

Question 80

Social ID theory (discrimination/prej)

Answer 80

Natural tendency to categorize people into groups + favour in group vs outgroup (+ feeling for in group= high self esteem; - feeling for our group= +discrimination/prejudice)

Question 81

Scapegoat theory

Answer 81

Dominant groups discriminate to vent frustrations/disappointments (I.e. unemployment times>> + discrimination/prejudice)

Question 82

Authoritarian personality theory

Answer 82

People with harsh/restrictive upbringing + authoritarian qualities + high F (fascism) scale score = + ethnocentrism and prejudice

Question 83

Terror management theory

Answer 83

Bio drive to stay alive and protect self from threats to life. Increase mortality rates increase negative evals for out groups, increase positive evals for in groups and increase stereotypical thinking + preference for stereotypic confirming individuals. Methods to increase mortality salience: imagine own death, complete a death anxiety scale, interview near a funeral home, expose to subliminal death related words

Question 84

Dehumanizations (prejudice)

Answer 84

Prejudice can be blatant (view out group as non human) vs subtle (view out group as less than human.) Subtle>> infra humanization theory. + primary and secondary emotions attributed to in group= more empathy/pro social behaviours. less primary and secondary emotions attributed to outgroup= less empathy, + prejudice

Question 85

Allport’s contact hypothesis and how it reduces prejudice/discrimination

Answer 85

1) members have equal status 2) members work together to achieve common goals (superordinate) 3) authorities/laws/customs sanction contact 4) there is no competition

Question 86

Structural vs institutional vs interpersonal vs intrapersonal/internalized racism

Answer 86

Structural: laws, practices (funding schools via local property taxes, favour W neighborhoods) Institutional: processes in institutions (zero tolerance policies in schools expel more minorities) Interpersonal: dominant groups behave in ways that harm other groups (micro aggressions) Internalized: internalize positive and negative stereotypes (colorism)

Question 87

Sexism (ambivalent sexism theory)

Answer 87

Hostile sexism: hostile to those who violate traditional standards. (Feminists, working moms) Benevolent sexism: supportive to women who stick to traditional standards (stay at home moms)

Question 88

Stereotypes (self stereotype vs stereotype threat)

Answer 88

Self stereotype: people’s unconscious internalization of stereotypes for own group (W adopt stereotype bad at math if they think they will fail math exam) Stereotype threat: situational factors activate stereotype assimilation/self stereotype. R= OA who read article on age related memory decline did worse on cog task. Why? + arousal, stress and negative thoughts about self impaired cognitive processes/perf

Question 89

Shooter bias

Answer 89

Civilians showed bias. Regardless of race. Cops didn’t. Had easier time detecting gun/accuracy of shooting. But showed bias when thinking quickly (shot armed B more quickly and not shot unarmed W more quickly). (So bias in response time NOT accuracy) Person’s familiarity with stereotype that black men were dangerous was more predictive of shooter bias than person’s prejudice

Question 90

Multidimensional model of racial identity (Sellers; what are 4 dimensions, how is it different from other models of black racial identity) **SCRI

Answer 90

4 dimensions: 1) racial salience: extent to which race is relevant in self concept 2) race centrality: race ID relative to other identities (religion, gender) ie. stability vs salience 3) racial regard: private (feelings towards oneself as an AA) and public regard (perception of how others view AA) 4) racial ideology: beliefs about how AA should live/interact. Ideologies: nationalist, oppressed minority, assimilationist, humanist (vary per context) ** difference: doesn’t depict stages but recognizes variability across time/situations

Question 91

Helm’s White Racial Identity Development (CDRPIA) & Respective IPS strategy

Answer 91

1. Contact: lack of awareness of racism/satisfied with status quo. IPS: obliviousness 2. Disintegration: become aware of race related dilemas/contradictions that cause confusion and anxiety . IPS: suppression/ambivalence 3. Reintegration: attempt to resolve dilemmas, by believing whites are superior and blame minorities. IPS: selective perception and negative out group distortion. 4. Pseudo-independence: faced with event that makes them question beliefs. Superficial tolerance of minorities. IPS: reshaping reality and selective perception 5. Immersion-Emersion: search for meaning of racism and understand meaning of white & white privilege*. IPS: hypervigilence and reshaping 6. Autonomy: develop non racist ID, value diversity. IPS: flexibility and complexity * therapists white identity status impacts effectiveness with minority clients

Question 92

Wothington Multidimensional model of heterosexual identity development (5 stages, and tie to Marcia’s ID model) *think U-ADDS worth

Answer 92

Involves 2 interacting processes: individual sexual identity process + social identity process 5 stages: 1) unexplored commitment: reflects societal and familial mandates. Avoidance of self exploration. (Foreclosure) 2) active exploration: purposeful exploration and experimentation. (Moratorium) 3) diffusion: absence of active exploration and commitment (confusion, not limited to sexual ID; same name in Marcia) 4) deepening & commitment: progression towards greater commitment, solidification for sexual o./values/needs. 5) synthesis: integration of sexual identity with other identities (holistic view of self). Research= sexual minorities have more established identities in Marcia’s model. Hetero= less established identities: ID foreclosure, moratorium, diffusion.

Question 93

In sellers multidimensional model of racial identity (salience, centrality, regard and ideology) which of all these 4 is dependant on situation and which are stable across situations?

Answer 93

Salience is relevant to the person’s self concept at a particular point in time, so it depends on circumstances. All others: centrality, regard and ideology are stable across situations.

Question 94

Loss aversion

Answer 94

Tendency for people to weigh losses more heavily than gains. For example: Tvertsky and kahneman: found that the aggravation caused by losing a specific amount of money is about twice as intense as the satisfaction caused by gaining the same amount of $

Question 95

Minority stress theory (distal vs proximal factors)

Answer 95

Both factors increase the risk for mental health problems in sexual minority individuals Distal= external stressors, include prejudice, discrimination, violence, racism (distance away from person/away) Proximal= internal stressors, concealment of sexual I’d, perceived stigma and internalized heterosexism

Question 96

Therapist/client Relationships based on Helm’s model (progressive relationships, parallel relationship and crossed relationship)

Answer 96

Progressive relationship: occurs when therapist has more flexible and integrated racial ID than client, best for client = pseudo + disintegration pseudo+ contact Parallel relationship: stable/good both have not progressive ID = reintegration + contact Crossed relationship: NOT effective for client/bad, client has more progressive ID than therapist = reintegration + immersion/emersion ** remember contact Dr. PIA

Question 97

Social comparison theory (Leon Festinger)

Answer 97

Centres on idea that most people have a need to establish accurate self evaluations

Question 98

Barnum effect

Answer 98

Predicts that people tend to accept vague or general descriptions of themselves as accurate descriptions. Used to explain that astrological predictions or descriptions are accurate

Question 99

Norm of reciprocity

Answer 99

Expectation that people will help as opposed to hurt others who have helped them

Question 100

Issue with Eurocentric perspective on traditional forms of therapy

Answer 100

Emphasize one on one problem solving and adopt an atomistic, linear and reductionist cause-effect approach*

Question 101

Scarcity tap

Answer 101

“scarcity trap,” not only a preoccupation with an unfilled need but also with self-defeating behaviors that perpetuate scarcity. For example, a person with limited financial resources may postpone getting a broken car taillight fixed but then gets a ticket for the broken taillight, which results in an additional expense.