Social Influence Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
What is conformity?
A
a form of social influence that results from exposure to the majority position and leads to compliance with that position.
2
Q
What is compliance?
A
a type of conformity, public views change but private views do not. Changes to views only last while group is present. Superficial and temporary form of conformity
3
Q
What is internalisation?
A
a type of conformity, publics views and private views both change as the subject agrees with the majority. This is a deeper and more permanent form of conformity.
4
Q
What is identification?
A
A moderate type of conformity where we act in the same way with the group because we value it and want to be part of it. But we don’t necessarily agree with everything the majority believes.
5
Q
Who argued that we can distinguish between three types of conformity?
A
Kelman (1958)
6
Q
What is informational social influence?
A
when you defer to the judgement of people who you think have more knowledge of the topic than you
7
Q
What is normative social influence?
A
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
8
Q
What type of conformity does ISI usually lead to?
A
Internalisation
9
Q
What type of conformity does NSI usually lead to?
A
Compliance
10
Q
strengths of the explanations of conformity
A
- research support (Lucas et al (2006) for ISI, Asch (1951) for NSI
11
Q
Which situations lead to ISI?
A
- when the situation is ambiguous
- when the situation is more difficult or complex
- the situation is a crisis
- we believe others to be experts
12
Q
weaknesses of the explanations of conformity
A
- lab studies which lack ecological validity and could lead to demand characteristics
- nAffiliators are more likely to conform
13
Q
Key studies in conformity:
A
Jenness (1932): jelly bean experiment estimate changed after collaboration (ISI)
Sherif (1935): autokinetic light experiment (ISI)
Asch (1951): line experiment to see if the subject would conform to confederates clearly incorrect answer (NSI)
14
Q
What is ecological validity?
A
if the findings in the study would be replicated in the real world
15
Q
What are demand characteristics?
A
cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected
16
Q
What is the method of Jenness’ study?
A
Jenness used an ambiguous situation that involved a glass bottle filled with jelly beans. PPs were told to estimate how many were in there individually and then again in a group.
17
Q
What were the findings of Jenness’ study?
A
The results were converging. People’s results came closer after discussing with a group which demonstrates ISI.
18
Q
What is the method of Sherif’s study?
A
Sherif used an illusion called the auto kinetic effect where a light looks like it moves but it doesn’t. They were asked to guess how much the light moved individually and in groups. One person in a group was very different from the other two.
19
Q
Who developed the two process theory for conformity? (ISI and NSI)
A
Deutsch and Gerard (1955)
20
Q
What were the findings of Sherif’s study?
A
The group was converging. The person whose result was different was changed drastically to the other people’s guess demonstrating ISI.
21
Q
What is the method of Asch’s study?
A
123 male US undergraduates participated in a ‘vision test’. Asch took a pp and placed them last or second to last amongst a group of confederates. Confederates were told to pick a blatantly wrong answer to see if the pp would conform.
- There were 18 trials, 12 of which were critical trials.
22
Q
What were the findings of Asch’s study?
A
75% conformed at least once and 25% of participants never conformed. There was overall conformity rate of 35%.
23
Q
What are the 3 variables affecting conformity as researched by Asch?
A
Group size
Unanimity of the majority
Task difficulty
24
Q
How does group size affect conformity?
A
From 2 to 3 confederates, the conformity rates increased to 30 percent. Any increase in group size doesn’t make much change.
25
How does the unanimity of the majority affect conformity?
When all confederates conform to one wrong answer, the pp is more likely to conform. The pp is much less likely to conform even if there is one break in the chain (regardless of if this other answer is right or wrong)
26
How does task difficulty affect conformity?
when the differences between the lines were smaller so it was more difficult, conformity was higher
27
What is temporal validity and how does it lack in Asch's study?
Perrin and Spencer (1980) repeated Asch's experiment at later and saw conformity rates drop in the line experiment meaning Asch's findings do not hold up over time.
28
What is ecological validity and how does Asch's study lack it?
They may have shown demand characteristics. The task of identifying a line is quite silly and not applicable to the real world. The groups don't resemble real world groups. The study may not replicate what we see in the real world.
29
What is population validity and how does Asch's study lack it?
Asch only had male, undergrad pps meaning the findings may not be applicable to females or those of other ages. Bond and Smith (1996) also point out how the US is an individualistic culture where people worry about themselves so conformity may be less which opposed by a collectivist culture like China which is community based.
30
What ethical issues does Asch's study have?
Asch deceived pps since the participant didn't know the group were confederates. The deception could've led to psychological harm. There is a debate if debriefing makes up for the deception and the possibility if he gave his participants fully informed consent.
31
What is conformity to social roles?
When an individual adopts a particular behaviour and belief, while in a particular social situation
32
Who devised the SPE?
Zimbardo (1974)
33
What was the aim of the SPE?
To see whether people will conform to new social roles.
34
What was Zimbardo interesting in finding?
Whether brutality reported among guards in prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards (dispositional) or due to the prison environment (situational)
35
What was the procedure of the SPE?
- basement was converted into mock prison
- 24 male college students who were checked to ensure there were no psychological problems
- randomly assigned guard or prison (11 guards and 10 prisoners)
- paid $15 a day
- prisoners were arrested in their own home and were booked like normal prisoners
- prisoners were given an ID, a smock and a nylon cap
- guards had khaki uniform with shades to prevent eye contact
- Zimbardo acted as superintendent
36
What were the results of Zimbardo's study?
- pps conformed to roles very quickly
- prisoners were dehumanised
- prisoners were interrupted in sleep and were made to do meaningless tasks
- experiment ended early
- prisoners had severe reactions like nervous rashes and breakdowns
- five prisoners were released early
37
Strengths of Zimbardo's study
- good level of control over variables (no experimenter bias)
- experiment has good application to Abu Ghraib (Abu ghraib was a prison were guards tutored and abused prisoners)
38
Weaknesses of Zimbardo's study
- lack of research support (this experiment was replicated by the BBC and findings were very different)
- ethical issues: Zimbardo had dual roles (as a superintendent and a psychologist). When one prisoners wanted to leave Zimbardo responded as a superintendent rather than a psychologist and did not take responsibility for his pps. There was also deception as the prisoners would not be told that they would be arrested in their own homes. This may have psychologically harmed the pps.
39
How does Zimbardo argue against the criticism of lack fo ethics in his experiment?
- the deception was limited to the beginning of the experiment
- without deceiving them they would have shown demand characteristics
- Zimbardo abandoned the experiment when realising the prisoners were having severe reactions
- there were extensive group and individual debriefing sessions
- Zimbardo argues the benefits gained from the experiment was worth the distress caused by the study.
40
Who's study caused the introduction of ethical guidelines?
Zimbardo's
41
What is obedience?
Complying with the demands of an authority figure
42
Who studied obedience?
Milgram
43
What hypothesis was Milgram testing?
Germans are different
44
State the procedure of Milgram's experiment
- 40 (20-50) male ppts at Yale
- $4 an hour memory test
- learner, teacher, experimenter (ppt would always be Teacher) (confederate Mr Wallace was used for learner)
- placed in separate rooms where teacher would administer fake shocks from 15 to 450 volts
45
What were the four prods of Milgram's experiment?
1) Please continue
2) The experiment requires you continue
3) It is absolutely essential that you continue
4) You have no other choice, you must go on
46
What were the results of Milgram's study?
- predicted 2% would shock at highest level
- all ppts shocked up to 300V and 65% shocked until 450 volts
- ppts showed signs of nervousness and tension
- nervous laughter was common
- Germans are different hypothesis was not supported
47
Strengths of Milgram's study
- external validity (reflected real life authority)
- Hofling et al (1966) performed nurse experiment where 21 out of 22 obeyed the doctor giving incorrect prescription (however Rank and Jacobson say that the nurses didn't know about the drug and didnt obey when having to prescribe excessive Valium)
- Milgram's study has supporting replication (Le Jeu de La Mort)
48
Weaknesses of Milgram's study
- Low internal validity, ppts could have shown demand characteristics. Orne and Holland say ppts could've guessed shocks were fake.
- ethical issues: Baumrind was critical of how Milgram deceived ppts
49
How did Milgram defend his study?
Difficult to withdraw: difficult but not impossible
Risk of long term harm: ppts were debriefed, 84% were glad to have taken part
50
What are the three situational variables Milgram investigated in regards to obedience?
Proximity
Location
Uniform
51
How did Milgram investigate proximity?
Milgram placed learner in same room as teacher: Obedience went from 65% to 40%
When teacher had to force hand onto plate (touch proximity): Obedience went from 65% to 30%
When experimenter was in another room: Obedience be like 65% to 20.5%
52
How did Milgram investigate location?
He performed the experiment in Yale and in a run-down building. From Yale -> run-down building. Obedience: 65% -> 47.5%
53
How did Milgram investigate uniform?
Experiment with lab coat and without lab coat. Obedience went from 65% to 20%
54
What are the strengths of Milgram's variations?
- research support: Bickman (1974) used guards outfit and milkman's outfit to see if ppts obeyed. 80% obeyed guard and 40% obeyed civilian
- cross cultural replication: Milgram's findings were also replicated by Miranda et al (1981) and found obedience rates of 90%
However Smith and Bond (1998) say that it hasn't been applied to developing countries.
55
What are the weaknesses of Milgram's variations?
- lack of internal validity: Orne and Holland say ppts would be able to tell its fake and show demand characteristics
- the obedience alibi: David Mandel (1998) says that people can use these factors as feeble excuses for committing bad actions
56
What are the three explanations of obedience?
Agentic state, legitimate authority and the authoritarian personality
57
What is the agentic state theory?
People operate in two different ways in social situations (autonomic state and agentic state)
58
What is an autonomic state?
When acting as independent individuals, people are aware of the consequences of their actions and make decisions knowing they will be held account for the consequences
59
What is an agentic shift?
The change from an autonomic state to an agentic state
60
What is an agentic state?
An individual does not feel responsible for their actions as they are under orders from an authority figure
61
When does an agentic shift occur?
When someone perceives someone else as a figure of authority (where they have a higher position in the social hierarchy)
62
What are the strengths of the agentic state theory?
Makes sense in explaining why we obey authority and is supported by research.
Blass and Schmitt (2001) showed Milgram's study to students and asked who was responsible for harming Mr Wallace. Students blamed the experimenter rather than the participant.
63
What are the weaknesses of the agentic state theory?
- does not explain why people didn't obey in Milgram/Hofling's study; why do some "agents" not obey
- Mandel (1998) explained one incident involving German police where they shot 101 civilians. The policemen received no direct orders but shot anyways; agentic state theory does not explain this.
64
What is legitimacy of authority?
A situational explanation of obdience; it claims that we recognise our own and other people's position in the social hierarchy and that we will obey those who have a higher position in the hierarchy than we do
Socialised to obey authority figures from childhood as we trust them or fear punishment
65
What are the consequences of legitimacy of authority?
Authority figures have the power to punish (e.g. police officers can punish criminals)
Problems arise when authority becomes destructive (e.g. Hitler and Milgram experimenter)
Uniform is often a symbol of legitimate authority
66
What are the strengths of using legitimacy of authority as an explanation of obedience?
- Need authority figures for a well functioning, ordered society so it explains the functioning of a civilised nation
- shows how obedience can lead to real life war crimes
- Kelman and Hamilton (1989) argue that the My Lai massacre can be understood in terms of the power hierarchy of the US army
- took place in 1968 during Vietnam war, 504 civilians were killed and women were gang raped
- soldiers blew up buildings, burnt the village and killed all the animals
- one soldier found guilty and faced charges - same defence as Nazi officers who said he was only doing his duty to follow orders
- this shows the legitimacy of authority theory has ecological validity
Explains cultural differences in obediences
- Kilham and Mann (1974) replicated Milgram's study in Australia and only 16% went to full voltage
- Matell (1971) replicated Milgram's study in Germany and found 85% obedience rate
- shows cultural differences in perceived legitimacy of authority and how different cultures have different upbringings
67
What are the weaknesses of legitimate authority?
Not all legitimate authority figures should be obeyed (Milgram's study shows ppts harmed via obedience)
Harold Shipman managed to kill 200 patients as a doctor by wrong prescriptions
A balance must be struck when teaching children to obey authority as well as questioning the ethics of the orders that they are being given.
68
What is the authoritarian personality?
A explanation of obedience devised by Adorno (1950)
individuals personality characteristics determine their behaviour, not situational influences in the environment
Says they are more likely to obey authority figures
69
Authoritarian personality traits:
- servile towards people of higher status
- hostile towards people of lower status
- preoccupied with power
- inflexible in their beliefs and values
- conformist and conventional
- likely to categorise people as "us" or "them"
- dogmatic (intolerant of ambiguity)
70
What is the explanation for the development of the authoritarian personality?
People developed these personalities due to receiving extremely harsh discipline from parents during upbringing (usually physical punishment)
This creates feelings of hostility which are directed toward weaker others who cannot fight back and therefore safe
They cannot take out their anger on parents because they fear them and instead act in a submissive way. This behaviour extends to all authority figures.
71
What is fascism?
A governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasising an aggressive nationalism and often racism.
72
What is the F scale?
F (fascism) scale was derived from a questionnaire using to measure authoritarian personalities
73
How did Adorno test the F scale?
He tested more than 2000, middle-class white Americans and their unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups and found that there was a relationship between authoritarian personality and scoring high on the F scale.
74
What are the strengths of the authoritarian personality?
- research support: Elms and Milgram (1966) took 20 obedient ppts and 20 disobedient ppts to complete a MMPI scale and and F scale.
MMPI scale didn't show much different but F scale did
Obedient ppts were not as close to their fathers
Miller (1975) found higher F scale meant more likely to hold electric wiring during a test. This was also shown by Altemeyer (1981) who found high F scale meant you were more likely to shock yourself
75
What are the weaknesses of the authoritarian personality?
- Limited explanation: doesn't explain why the majority of people in a country such as Germany are obedient but not all Germans can possess the authoritarian personality.
An alternative which explains obedience whereby the Germans identified with the anti-semitic Nazi state and scapegoated the outgroup of Jews.
- methodological problems: the questionnaire is worded in the same direction so it is easy to get a high score. All questions are closed. Adorno would've shown interviewer bias when interviewing his ppts because he knew their score.
76
What are the two explanations as to why people resist social influence?
- social support (external factor)
- internal locus of control (internal factor)
77
Stats of studies where ppts resisted social influence
Asch: 24% didn't conform at all
Milgram: 35% didn't go to full voltage
Hofling: One nurse didn't administer drug
Zimbardo: 66% resisted pressure to behave sadistically toward prisoners
78
What is social support?
When non-conformist has an ally, this builds confidence and allows an individual to remain independent. Asch reports that if this dissenter then returns to conform so will the participant, meaning the effect may only be short term
79
How does social support affect conformity?
In Asch's variations conformity dropped to 5.5% when there was one correct dissenter and dropped to 9% when there was one incorrect dissenter
In an Asch-type study conducted by Allen and Levine (1971), it was found that conformity decreased even when the dissenter said that they had thick glasses or poor eyesight. This shows how one person can have a great effect
80
How does social support affect obedience?
In one of Milgram's variations, the rate of obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when the real ppt was joined by a disobedient confederate.
81
What was the aim of Gamson et al (1982) experiment?
To set up a situation in which ppts were encouraged to rebel against unjust authority
82
What was the procedure of Gamson et al (1982) experiment?
- advert in newspapers in Michigan, USA asking for volunteers to take part in a paid group discussion on "standards of behaviour in the community"
- there was a discussion held at a local holiday inn
- put in groups of 9
- fake human relations company called MHRC was conducting research for an oil company, which was taking legal action against a petrol station manager
- they argued that the manager had been sacked because his lifestyle was offensive to the local community
- in contrast the manager argued that he had been sacked for speaking out on high petrol prices
- ppts discussed about sacking and cameraman stopped filming half way and told ppts to argue in favour of sacking the man
- at the end, the ppts were asked to sign a consent form allowing the film to be shown in a court case
83
What were the findings of Gamson et al (1982) experiment?
Out of the 33 groups, 32 groups rebelled in some way during the discussion
In 25/33 groups, the majority of group members refused to sign the consent form allowing the film to be used in court. Nine groups even threatened legal action against MHRC.
This study clearly shows the notion of social support and the power of it resisting obedience to authority
83
What are the strengths of social support?
- research support: Asch's and Milgram's variations
- ecological validity: Gamson's study had high ecological validity because pps did not know that they were taking part in a psychological experiment so they would not have shown demand characteristics
83
What are the weaknesses of social support?
- social support explanation is applicable to small groups under 10. However, in the real world, groups are much bigger and having one dissenter will have almost no effect on the majority. Therefore, more research on larger groups needs to be done
84
How would you describe someone with a high internal locus of control?
People who feel a stronger sense of control over their lives than people with an external locus of control. They are also more active seekers of info, rely less on opinion of others, and are more likely to resist pressure from others. This means they are more likely to show resistance to social influence.
84
What is a locus of control?
A person's perception of the degree of personal control they have over their behaviour.
84
How would you describe someone with a high external locus of control?
People who see their future and their actions as resulting largely from factors outside their control such as luck or fate
85
Why would someone with a high internal LOC be more resistant to social influence?
They take more responsibility for their actions so they act according to their own beliefs.
People with high internal LOC tend to be more self-confident, more achievement orientated, have higher intelligence and have less need for social approval. These personality traits lead to greater resistance to social influence.
86
