Social Influence Flashcards
(149 cards)
1
Q
define conformity
A
a change in opinion or behaviour because of real or imagined group pressure from the majority group of people
2
Q
define obedience
A
a form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order . the person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority , who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming
3
Q
define minority influence
A
a form of social influence in which a minority of people (sometimes just one person ) persuade others to adopt their beliefs attitudes or behaviours.
4
Q
what are the three types of conformity in order of shallowest to deepest?
A
-compliance
-Identification
-internalisation
5
Q
define compliance
A
-this type of conformity involves simply going along with others in public but privately not changing personal opinions and or behaviour.
-compliance results in only a superficial change
-it is also temporary , a particular behaviour or opinion stops as soon as the group is no longer present
6
Q
define identification
A
-sometimes we conform to the opinions / behaviour of a group when we value being part of it .
-this is a moderate type of conformity
-we identify with the group so we want to be part of it
this may mean we publicly change our opinions /
-behaviours to achieve this goal even if we don’t privately agree with everything the group stands for
7
Q
define internalisation
A
-internalisation occurs when a person genuinely accepts the group norms
-this is a deep type of conformity
-this results in private as well as a public change of opinions/ behaviours .
-this change is likely to be permanent because attitudes have been internalised . i.e. becomes part of the way a person thinks
-the change in opinions/ behaviour persists even in the absence of group members
8
Q
who developed the two process theory?
A
Deutsch and Gerrard (1955)
9
Q
define ISI (informational social influence)
A
an explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we believe it is correct . we accept it because we want to be correct as well . this may lead to internalisation.
it is more likely to happen in situations that are new to a person so you don’t know what is right or in situations where there is some ambiguity so it isn’t clear what is right
10
Q
define NSI (normative social influence)
A
An explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we want to be accepted , gain social approval , and be liked . this may lead to compliance
it is most likely to occur in situations with strangers where u may feel conscious about rejection
11
Q
define type
A
a type is a way in which people conform
12
Q
define explanation
A
an explanation is a reason why people conform
13
Q
what was the aim of Asch’s experiment?
A
Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.
He wanted to measure the strength of the conformity effect using an unambiguous task.
14
Q
what was the procedure for Asch’s experiment?
A
-123 ALL MALE American undergraduates were tested in groups of 6-8
-they were told it was a “psychological experiment “ about visual judgements
-each group contained only 1 real participant and the others were confederates.
-Asch showed a series of lines to the participants who were asked to say out loud which line (1,2,3) matches the standard line
-participants always answered in the same order with the real participant answering last or second last
-the confederates were instructed to give the same incorrect answer on 12 of the 18 trials , these were called ‘critical trials’.
15
Q
what were the results of Asch’s experiment?
A
-on 12 critical trials the naïve participant gave a wrong answer 36.8% of the time.
-75% of participants conformed at least once.
16
Q
what is the conclusion of Asch’s trial?
A
-normative social influence had led to conformity
-the real participants agreed with the opinion of the group because they wished to be accepted by them.
-as the control trial proved that the task was was easy participants clearly only conformed to fit in with the group .
17
Q
what is meant by critical trial in Asch’s experiment?
A
confederate were instructed to give the same incorrect answer on 12 of the 18 trials
18
Q
how did Asch prove the task was unambiguous and easy? (not open to interpretation)
A
he conducted a control trail with no confederates and showed people only make mistakes 0.7-1% of the time.
19
Q
what were the three variations of Asch’s research?
A
group size
unanimity
task difficulty
20
Q
what were the affects of altering group size in Asch’s experiment?
A
he found that with three confederates conformity to the wrong answer rose to 31.8%.
however the addition of further confederates made little diffrence .
This suggests that a SMALL MAJORITY is not sufficient for influence to be exerted but at the other extreme there is no need for a majority or more than three
21
Q
what were the affects of unanimity in Asch’s research?
A
the presence of a dissenting confederate (somebody who disagreed with the other confederates) meant that conformity was reduced by a 1/4 from the level it was when the majority was unanimous.
the presence of a dissenter enabled the naive participant to behave independently.
this suggests that the influence of the majority depends to some extent of the group being unanimous (all saying the same thing).
This type of conformity was more likely to be internalisation because he would have identified more strongly with someone who originally shared his opinion.
22
Q
what were the affects of Asch’s research after altering task difficulty?
A
Asch made the line judging tasks more difficult by making the stimulus line and comparison lines more difficult in length .
he found that conformity increased under these conditions
this suggests that informational social influence plays a greater role when the task becomes harder .
this is because the situation is more ambiguous so we are more likely to look for other people for guidance to assume that they are right and we are wrong.
23
Q
evaluating ethical issues in Asch’s study
A
-the participants were deceived as they believed the confederates were also participants who were asked to take part in a “visual line judgement task”
-this is a limitation as the participants could of not have their true informed consent to take part in the study .
-the benefits of this study could outweigh the ethical cost-> it highlighted people’s susceptibility to group conformity and the values affecting it.
-HOWEVER the experiment would not of worked without deception , although deception could put participants of taking part in future studies.
24
Q
limitations of internal validity in Asch’s study (artificial study)
A
-Asch’s experiment was artificial
-participants knew they were in a study and may have gone along with the demands of the situation (demand characteristics)
-the tasked identifying lines is tribal and there was no reason not to conform
-this means Asch’s results may not be valid because conformity in the real world has consequences
25
strengths of the internal validity of Asch's study (lab experiment)
-there was a high degree of control in Asch's research meaning that he could study the factors affecting conformity.
-using a lab experiment meant that the variables were easy to manipulate to test factors affecting conformity
26
limitation of external validity in Asch's study (cultural differences )
-there are important cultural differences in conformity yet Asch only tested American males
-smith et al (1998) found that the average conformity rate in individualist cultures was 25% while the average conformity rate in collective cultures was 37% .
-Neto (1995) suggested women were more conformist than men due to their concern for social relationships.
-this shows that Asch's findings can only be generalised to American men (low population validity)
27
limitations of external validity in Asch's research (temporal validity)
Asch's findings may not be true today as the research took place at a time when conformity was high
-Asch's study was conducted in the 50s
Perrin and Spencer(1980) replicated Asch's study in the 1980 and found that they only had one conforming response in 396 trials .
-this suggests that conformity levels change over time and that Asch's research could be regarded as a “child of its time” rather than a universal phenomenon .
-the study has low temporal validity
28
what experiment did Zimbardo conduct?
The Stanford prison experiment (SPE) 1973
29
what was the aim of the Stanford prison experiment?
To assess how strongly an individual conforms to their social role .
30
what was the procedure of the Stanford prison experiment?
-they recruited 21 “emotionally stable” volunteers students who were determined by psychological testing
-participants were randomly assigned role of prisoner or guard
-prisoners were arrested in their homes to increase realism
-upon arrival they were strip searched deloused and issued a uniform and a number
-every effort was made to de-individualise the participants
-prisoners named were never used only their numbers
-guards had their own uniforms and sunglasses that blocked out their eyes
-guards were told they have complete power over the prisoners and could do what they needed to do to keep the prison in order (short of physical violence)
31
what were the results of the Stanford prison experiment?
-within three days the prisoners rebelled against their treatment ripping uniforms and shouting at guards
-guards harassed prisoners by conducting frequent headcounts sometimes in the middle of the night and making toilet trips a privilege.
-guards took up their roles with enthusiasm , the guards showed PATHOLOGY OF POWER-(they enjoyed the absolute control they had over the prisoners )
their behaviour threatened the prisoners psychological and physical health
-after the rebellion was put down the prisoners became subdued anxious and depressed
-five prisoners had to be released because of extreme reactions to the situation. 2 were released as they showed signs of psychological disturbance
-one prisoner went on hunger strike and guards attempted to force feed him and punished him by putting him in the hole a tiny dark closet.
-THE STUDY WAS STOPPED AFTER SIX DAYS INSTEAD OF THE PLANNED 8 DAYS
32
what was the conclusion of the Stanford prison experiment?
The simulation revealed the power of the situation to influence people’s behaviour .
Guards prisoners and researchers all confined to their social roles within the prison .
The more the guards identified with their roles the more brutal and aggressive their behaviour became.
33
limitation of the Stanford prison experiment (contradicting findings)
there is research from Reicher and Haslam (2006) that contradicts Zimbardo's findings
-they found that it was prisoners who eventually took control of the mock prison and harassed guards because the guards had failed to develop a shared social identity as a cohesive group (social identity theory)
-this shows that zimbardos findings have not been replicated in a modern and more ethical setting
COUNTER ARGUMENT: This experiment was televised so the participants may not of acted the way they would of if the cameras weren’t there -> may of acted closer to Zimbardo's findings
34
evaluating ethical issues of the Stanford prison experiment
there were ethical issues with Zimbardo's research:
-when a prisoner asked to leave he depended as the superintendent not the lead psychologist compromising their right to withdraw .
-there were also issues with psychological and physical harm ag embarrassment of being made to strip and sleep deprivation due to headcounts.
These issues occurred because Zimbardo's played a dual role as the super intending and lead researcher.
COUNTER ARGUMENT: however participants were fully informed of what the research would entail . he also screened participants before the study to ensure they were psychologically stable
35
strengths of the Stanford prison experiment (variables)
there was a high control of variables in the research
-only emotionally stable individuals were chosen and randomly assigned to prisoner or guard
this helped rule out any individual differences that could of effected the results
36
limitations of Zimbardo's research (external validity)
there was a lack of realism in the research
-participants were okay acting rather than conforming to a role
-their performances were based on stereotypes eg cool hand Luke film .
this affects the internal validity of the results.
COUNTER ARGUMENT: however 90% of the prisoners conversations were about prison life so we can assume it felt real to them .
prisoner 416 claimed it was a “prison run by psychologists”
37
limitations of Zimbardo's research (dispositional factors)
zimbardo over exaggerated the power of the situation to influence behaviour and ignored dispositional factors (personality).
-only a minority of the guards were brutal others tried to help prisoners .
his conclusion that people conform due to the situation may not be valid.
38
evaluate the reliability of Asch's study
Asch used a standardised procedure which means that the findings can be replicated , increasing their reliability.
39
what was the aim of Milgram's experiment (1963)?
To measure the extent to which people are willing to obey a figure of authority who asks them to do something which conflicts with their personal conscience using a laboratory based procedure.
40
what was the method/procedure of Milgram's experiment?
-recruited 40 male participants who volunteered through newspaper advertisement .
-everyone was payed 4.50 and told they would receive this even if they quit during the study.
-two confederates - an experimenter (the authority figure) and the “learner”
-teachers were instructed that they must administer an increasingly strong electric shocks to the “learner” each time he got a question wrong
41
what happens if the “teacher” asks to stop the experiment in Milgram's study?
The experimenter (the authority figure) uses prompts such as :
“please continue”
“the experiment requires that you continue”
“it’s a absolutely essential that you continue”
“you have no other choice you must go on “
42
how is the procedure standardised in the Milgram study?
The experimenter uses the same prompts such as “it’s absolutely essential that you continue” when the teacher (participant) asks to stop the study.
43
why did the voltage levels go up in 15 volt increments in the Milgram study?
They went up in 15 volt increments to a maximum of 450 volts in order to create a gradual commitment.
44
what were the results of Milgram's study?
-participants continued to the maximum voltage of 450 volts , far beyond what was marked - “danger severe shock”
-All participants shocked to 300 Volts
-only 12.5% of participants stopped at the point where the learner first objected
-14 defied the experiment after 300 volts (remaining autonomous )
-26 obeyed to the end and gave 450 vaults (agentic shift)
45
what qualitative data was collected for the results of Milgram's experiment and how ?
qualitative data was collected using observations
- participants showed signs of extreme tension , many were seen to :
sweat
tremble
stutter
bite their lips
groan
dig their nails into their hands
THREE PARTICIPANTS HAD FULL BLOWN UNCONTROLLABLE SEIZURES
46
did the participants receive a debrief after Milgram's study
All participants were debriefed and assured their behaviour was normal.
they were sent a follow up questionnaire and 84% reported they felt glad they participated
47
what was the conclusion of Milgram's study into obedience?
-That ordinary people are surprisingly obedient to authority even when being ask to inflict pain onto others and behave in an inhumane manner.
-Therefore elucidating that it is not evil people who commit atrocities it is in fact , ordinary people obeying orders
-Crimes against humanity may be the result of situational factors rather than dispositional factors
-Agency theory is apparent in this study.
48
Why is agency theory present in Milgram's study?
-14 participants defied the experimenter after 300 volts . showing that they remained in an autonomous state .
-26 participants obeyed to the end and gave 450 volts showing they were in an agentic state.
49
evaluate the internal validity of Milgram's research
Milgrams study appeared to have high internal validity . It took place in a laboratory. The situation appeared real to participants as evidenced by their severe reactions to the experiment e.g seizures
COUNTER ARGUMENT - However many of the participants worked out the procedure was faked . This can then become a limitation as it is unclear whether the results are genuinely due to obedience or because the participants saw through the deception and acted accordingly.
50
explain the ethical issue of deception in Milgram's experiment
-Deception was an ethical issue in milgrams experiment .
yes
-the participants were led to believe that the true aim of the experiment was to show how punishment affects learning. However the true aim is to investigate obedience to an authority figure .
-They were also deceived into thinking that they were actually administering real electric shocks to the “learner”. however they were not
COUNTER ARGUMENT- If the participants were told the true aims of the study , they may or acted differently.
51
explain the ethical issue of protection for harm in Milgram's experiment
-Milgram failed to protect his participants from harm.
-Participants were led to believe they had rendered somebody unconscious or killed them . Three participants had full blown seizures and there were signs of extreme tension in most participants.
-this causes ethical issues as they feel guilty and upset they were harmed psychologically and physically in some cases with the seizures.
COUNTER ARGUMENT- there was a thorough debrief at the end and 84% of participants said they were pleased to have taken part .
THEY MET THE UNHARMED LEARNER AT THE END
52
what is a strength of Milgram's study into obedience?
-A strength of Milgram's study is that it has been recently replicated.
-A 2010 French reality Tv show partially replicated Milgram's research .
-participants were paid to give electric shocks (fake) to the other participants (actors) when ordered to by the presenter.
-the results were that they were almost identical to Milgram's. Participants appeared nervous and showed signs of anxiety.
This supports Milgram's original findings and conclusions about authority as it demonstrates his findings weren’t just a one off chance
53
what are the explanations for obedience?
agency theory
54
what is the agency theory?
Milgram beloved that we exist in two different states -
the autonomous state
the agentic state
55
what is the autonomous state?
in the autonomous state we show free will and make our own choices and decisions , we feel responsibility for our own actions.
56
what is the agentic state?
in the agentic state we follow instructions from someone we perceive has legitimate authority over us . We feel no personal responsibility for their actions
57
what happens when we are asked to do something we view as immoral?
we experience moral strain , once we have shifted into an obedient state we feel relieved of the strain and displace responsibility into the authority figure.
58
what is legitimacy of authority?
-legitimacy of authority is an explanation for obedience which suggests that we are more likely to obey people who we perceive to have authority over us .
This authority is justified by the individuals position of power within w social hierarchy.
59
what is a consequence of legitimacy of authority?
a consequence is that some people are granted the power to punish others .
we give up some of our independence to people we trust to exercise their authority properly .
we learned to accept authority during childhood from parents and teachers.
60
what is one strength of legitimacy of authority?
one strength is that it can help to explain real life examples
61
explain how legitimacy of authority could be used to explain what occurred in the My Lai massacre in 1968
-During the war American soldiers entered My Lai and were ordered to kill inhabitants.
-the soldiers involved started they were only following orders because an authority figured it old them to.
-The soldiers were no longer autonomous, they were agents of the army.
62
what is a strength of legitimacy of authority to explain cultural differences in obedience research?
-Kilham and Mann (1974) found that in Australia only 16% of participants went all the way to the top of the voltage scale when replicating Milgram's study.
-Mantell 1971 found that 85% went to the top of the voltage scale in German participants
63
how can legitimacy of authority be used to explain the different obedience rates in different cultures?
i’m some cultures authority is more likely to be accepted as legitimate and entitled to demand obedience from individuals .
The difference in obedience roles shows how countries offer in the degree to which people are traditional obedient to authority , For example a country with a good governance obedience rates may be higher
64
what is some evidence supporting agency theory?
Hofling Et Al (1966) used the hospital hierarchy to test obedience in nurses.
65
what was the procedure for Hofling Et Al (1966) study supporting agency theory?
a confederate doctor rang a ward and asked the nurse to give twice the marked safe dose of an unknown drug to a patient
66
what were the results of Hofling Et Al (1966) study supporting agency theory?
-21 out of 22 nurses obeyed the orders against the hospital rules
-when a control group of 22 nurses were asked what they would have done they denied they would of acted without proper authorisation in writing
67
what was the conclusion of Hofling Et Al (1966) study supporting agency theory?
Hofling concluded that the power hierarchy in hospitals was a bigger influence on nurses than following hospital rules.
68
what is some evidence against agency theory?
Rank and Jacobsen (1977) wanted to challenge Hofling’s findings
69
what was the procedure of Rank and Jacobsen's study that goes against agency theory?
-they repeating Hofling et al.’s experiment using a familiar drug at three times the recommended dose.
-when the researcher pretending to be a doctor telephoned , he had a familiar name and the nurses were able to discuss the order with other nurses before carrying it out
70
what was the results of Rank and Jacobsen's study that goes against agency theory?
Only 2 out of 18 nurses followed the order
71
what was the conclusion of Rank and Jacobsen's study that goes against agency theory?
The increased realism of the experiment,
and the discussion with a colleague ,
lowered obedience rates in exactly the same way that Milgram's addition of a dissenting confederate had done
72
strengths of the two studies for and against agency theory
-both studies have high ecological validity as they used a naturalistic setting
-Both studied have good application , as hospital procedures since have been tightened up
73
Limitations / evidence against agency theory
-it does not explain individual differences
-and agency are hard to measure and define concepts , they depend and vary on the situation
-it does not explain why some people are more motivated to follow certain people more then others who have equal authority.
74
who identified situational variables/explanations for obedience?
Milgram
75
what are the three situational variables / explanations for obedience?
-proximity (to learner ) and (to authority figure)
-location
-uniform
76
how was Milgram's original experiment altered to measure proximity to the learner as a situational variable?
Milgram changed the location , he moved the teacher and learner into the same room .
he made the teacher force the learners hand on to an electroshock plate
77
what were the results when the teacher and learner and teacher were put in the same room in Milgram's research into situational variables?
obedience rates fell from 65% to 40%
78
what were the results of making the teacher force the learner hand on to the plate when investigating proximity in Milgram's research?
Obedience rates fell from 65% to 30%
79
why did altering proximity of the learner in Milgram's research decrease obedience?
proximity increases awareness of obeying an order . A task becomes harder if you can see the pain you are inflicting on somebody else.
80
how was Milgram's original experiment altered to measure proximity to the authority figure as a situational variable?
The experimenter left the room and orders were given by telephone
81
what were the results when proximity to the authority figure was altered in Milgram's research into situational variables?
the obedience level falls from 65% to 22.5%
82
why did altering the proximity of the authority figure in Milgram's research decrease obedience?
If the person giving orders is right next to you it is harder to disobey them.
83
how was Milgram's original experiment altered to measure location as a situational variable?
The original study took place at Yale university - they moved it to run down office block
84
what happened to obedience levels in Milgram's study when they moved the study to a rundown office block?
obedience rates fell from 65% to 48%
85
why did altering the location of Milgram's study affect obedience levels?
Being in a well regarded setting increases legitimate authority , research that takes place there is regarded as important . By moving the study to a run down office block , it regards the research as less important .
86
how was Milgram's original experiment altered to measure uniform as a situational variable?
the original experimenter wore a grey lab coat , in the adaptation of the study they wore “normal clothes”
87
what were the results of altering uniform in Milgram's study into situational variables?
Obedience levels dropped from 65% to 20%
88
what are the strengths of Milgram's situational explanations of obedience?
-Milgram's research has high control of variables , it was highly standardised
-there is research to support influence of uniform on obedience
-qualitative and quantitative data were collected , making the research credible and scientific
89
what are the limitations of situational explanations of obedience?
-Mandel (1998 criticism)- offers an excuse for evil behaviour
-Oren and Holland criticism - participants working out procedure was fake
-samples were all from the same area with very few women included , so we’re not representative of obedience in the whole population
-the sample was self selected by advertisement - participants were more likely to follow orders
90
evaluate the strength that Milgram's research has a high control of variables
P) a strength is that milgrams research has a high control of variables
E) The experimenter allowed each variable to be altered individually in order to improve the accuracy , as each environment is suited to what variable is being investigated . The experiments are controlled and standardised making them more reliable.
Exp) This is a strength because we are able to judge them individually meaning it’s easier to evaluate them separately rather than as a whole.
91
evaluate the strength that there is research support for influence on uniform on obedience.
P) There is research research support for the influence on uniform on obedience .
E) Bickman (1974) found that People were more obedient when she was wearing a high vis jacket rather than ‘everyday clothing’
Exp) This shows that uniform is a sign of authority and obedience levels rise when uniform is present
92
evaluate the limitation - Mandel's criticism on Milgram's situational explanations for obedience
P) Mandel 1998 criticised milgrams situational explanations for obedience
E) He suggested that it offers an excuse or “alibi” for evil behaviour
Exp) situational explanations of obedience could be offensive to those who have suffered and survived experiences such as the Holocaust
93
evaluate the limitation - Orne and Holland’s criticism of Milgram's study that participants worked out the experiment was faked
P) Orne and Holland criticised milgrams original study , suggesting many participants worked out the procedure was fake through manipulations
E) In the “member of the public” (uniform) variation , even milgram recognised that this situation was so contrived that some particpants may well of worked out the truth.
Exp) This shows the results lack internal validity because it is unclear whether the results are genuinely due to obedience or because participants saw through the deception and acted accordingly.
94
what are the Situational explanations for obedience that could be used to explain the behaviour of the Charlie company in the MY LAI MASSACRE
-uniform - in the army it is easy to see who is above you in terms of authority
-Proximity - they killed inhabitants using guns not by hands - easier for them
-location - they were over seas and not in their own country
-legitimacy of authority - hierarchy in the army - they may of feared for their own life if they didn't follow orders
95
what is the shift from autonomy to being an agent called?
the agentic shift
96
why did Milgram suggest that the agentic shift occurs?
It occurs when we perceive someone else as an authority figure. This person has power because of their position in a social hierarchy.
97
what are Binding factors?
binding factors are aspects of a situation that allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour .
reducing moral strain
eg shifting responsibility to the victim or denying the damage done
These factors keep somebody in an agentic state
98
evaluate the strength - agentic state is supported by Milgram's research
P) one strength of the agentic state explanation is that it is supported by milgrams research.
E)65% of particpants shocked all the way to 450 volts and 0% of particpants stopped before 300 volts
Exp) Milgram suggested that participants perceived the man in the white coat at as an authority figure who has power due to social hierarchy , he was lead experimenter / scientist . The participants therefore obeyed because they shifted from an autonomous to an agentic state.
99
evaluate the limitation- agentic shift explanation it doesn’t explain many of the findings in obedience research
P) One limitation of the agentic shift explanation is that it doesn’t explain many of the findings in obedience research.
E) 35% of particpants in milgrams study did not obey .
Exp) All humans are social animals in social hierarchies. therefore all participants should have obeyed the orders . This shows that agentic shift can only account for some situations of obedience.
+Behaviour of nurses in Hoflings study can’t be explained . There was no signs of anxiety as agentic shift took place , as expected
100
evaluate the limitation - agentic state can not account for all behaviour of Nazis in world war 2
P) another limitation is that the agentic state can not account for all behaviour of thr nazis in world war 2
E)There is research evidence to show that the behaviour of the nazis cannot be explained in terms of authority and agentic shift. Mandel (1998) described one incident involving a German Batallion following orders to shoot civillians in poland.
Exp) despite the fact they did not have direct orders to do so . They were told they could be assigned other duties if they preferred.
101
what is an authoritarian personality?
an authoritarian personality is a type of personality that Adorno argued was especially susceptible to obeying people in authority . Such individuals are also thought to be submissive to those of higher status and dismissive of inferiors
102
what are the characteristics of the authoritarian personality?
-obedience to authority , extreme respect and submissiveness to it
-show contempt for people they perceive as having inferior social status
-highly conventional attitudes towards sex , race and gender
-view society as “going to the dogs” - in turn needing strong and powerful leaders in order to enforce traditional values
-inflexible in their outlook - no grey areas everything is always right or wrong - uncomfortable with uncertainty
103
what is a dispositional explanation for obedience?
the authoritarian personality
104
what is the F scale?
The F scale (potential for fascism scale) was a questionnaire designed to measure how authoritarian a person is .
105
what was the procedure for Adornos study for dispositional explanations - the authoritarian personality
-Adorno et al (1950) investigated the causes of obedient personality in a study of more then 2000 middle class white male Americans , and their unconscious attitudes to other racial groups
-They developed the potential for fascism scale (F-scale) to measure this.
-Participants had to rate their agreement with each item on a 6 point scale
e. g of a statement the questionnaire contained - “obedience eland respect for authority are the most important things children should learn”
106
what were the findings from Adorno et al (1950) study into dispositional explanations for obedience - the authoritarian personality?
-people with authoritarian learnings eg those who scored high on the f scale , identified with strong people and were generally contemptuous of the weak
-There was a strong positive correlation between authoritarianism and prejudice
-They were very conscious of their own and others status , showing excessive defence to those of higher status’
-The highest correlations were between anti-semi toks and ethnocentrism showing a dislike to foreigners was linked to anti-Jewish and Nazi sympathisers
-they developed an “us” and “them” mentality - characteristics of authoritarian personality make them hostile to all non-conventional people.
107
explain how the authoritarian personality develops in childhood
Authoritarian personality develops as a result of harsh parenting as they may repress their hostility towards their parents and seem to idolise them.
typically identified by Adorno features such as strict discipline , an expectation of absolute loyalty. , impossibly high standards and severe criticisms of perceived failings.
The hostility towards parents that was repressed can be displaced onto non threatening minority groups , this can be through prejudice and discrimination.
108
evaluate the strength - there is support for the link between authoritarian personality and obedience (dispositional explanations)
p) There is support for the link between authoritarian personality and obedience
E) Milgram and Elms (1966) conducted interviews with a sample of fully obedient particpants scoring highly on the F scale .
Exp) It is impossible to draw a conclusion that authoritarian personality causes obedience - there may be a third factor involved
109
evaluate the limitation - authoritarian personality is a limited explanation for obedience .
P) This is a limited explanation for obedience .
E) in ore war germany millions of individuals displayed obedient , racist and anti semitic behaviour , It seems unlikely that they could all possess an authoritarian personality.
Exp) This is a limitation because it is clear that social identity explains obedience . The majority of German people identified with anti Semitic Nazi state
110
evaluate the limitation - there are methodological problems using the F scale to measure authoritarian personality - dispositional explanations for obedience
P) There are methodological problems with using F-scale to measure personality
E)Greenstein describes the F scale as a comedy of methodological errors , every one of its items is worded in the same direction. It is possible to get a high authoritarian score by ticking some boxes.
Exp) These methodological errors suggest that the data collected is meaningless and the concept of authoritarian personality lacks validity.
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evaluate the limitation - the use of correlational evidence to support the disposition explanation
P) Another limitation is the use of correlational evidence to support this explanation
E) Adorno and colleagues measured on a range of variables and they found correlations , They found authoritarianism strongly correlated with measures of prejudice against minority groups
Exp) This is a limitation because no matter how strong the correlation is it doesn’t show that one caused the other . and Adorno claimed harsh parenting caused development of the authoritarian personality
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What is resistance to social influence ?
resistance to social influence refers to the ability of people to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority of obey authority.
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what factors affect the ability to withstand social pressures?
The ability to withstand social pressure is influenced by :
-situational factors
-dispositional factors (personality)
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social support - what lowers conformity ?
-seeing somebody else not following the majority appears to enable a person to be free to follow their own conscience
-this person acts as a “model”
-Asch's research found that when he introduced a confederate who disagreed with the group , conformity reduced by a quarter from the level it was when the majority was unanimous.
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what causes obedience to be resisted ?
the pressure to obey is reduced if we see another disobey
in Milgram's research obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when a genuine participant was joined by a disobedient confederate
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why do people disobey if there’s a disobedient confederate?
the disobedient confederate acts as a “disobedient role model” for the participant to copy and frees them to act on their own conscience
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who proposed a dispositional explanation of independent behaviour?
Rotter 1966
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what is the locus of control and how is it measured?
locus of control refers to the sense we each have about what directs events in our lives , it can be used to explain resistance to social influence.
it is measured on a continuum with high internal LoC on one end and high external LoC on the other
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what is the difference between Internals and externals (Locus of Control)
-internals believe they are always responsible for what happens to them and their behaviour.
-they are likely to seek more information before following orders
-externals believe their life is merely being controlled by chance , luck or by others, especially those with more power then them.
-they are more likely to obey an authority figure
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characteristics of somebody with internal LoC
-better academic achievement
-better relationships
-more effort to learn
-better health behaviour
-less smoking
-positive attitudes to exercise
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characteristics of somebody with external LoC
-more resigned to fate or luck
-Lower levels of psychological well-being
-greater sense of satisfaction in an environment where they have no control
-less effort to stay healthy
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are externals or internals more likely to conform?
Externals are more likely to conform .
They may relate to a sense of learned helplessness . They put up with distress or discomfort as they feel they cannot escape from it.
internals are more likely to be able to resist the pressures . They have greater self confidence, and are more likely to become a leader themselves , therefore are more confident in terms of challenging authority.
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evaluate the strengths of Locus of control in terms of resisting social influence
-The LoC self report inventory has been standardised and used over vast samples , increasing its validity
-Avtgis (1998) used a meta analysis to investigate LoC and Conformity- results - people with an Internal LoC were more resistant and less likely to conform
-Holland (1967) showed that Internal Locus people showed greater resistance to authority in a replication of Milgram's 1963 study
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evaluate the limitations of Locus of control in terms of resistance to social influence
Teenage et al 2004 found that external locus people have increased in number over time but resistance to authority has increased as well , this then can cause doubt about the concept locus of control
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evaluate the strength that there is evidence to support the role of dissenting peers in resisting conformity (LoC and social support)
P) there is evidence to support the role of dissenting peers in resisting conformity
E) Allen and Levine in 1971 found that conformity decreased when there was one dissenter in the Asch type study . Conformity decreased even if the dissenter wore thick glasses and said he had difficulty with vision , showing he was in no position to clearly view the lines
Exp) this supports the view that resistance is not just motivated by what some one else says , but it enables somebody to be free of the pressure from the group
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evaluate the strength that there is evidence to support the role of dissenting peers in resisting obedience - (LoC and social support)
P) There is evidence to support the role of dissenting peers in resisting obedience
E)Gamson et al 1982 found that there were higher levels of resistance in their study than milgram , this was probably because the particpants were in groups in Gamsons study .
In 29/33 of the groups in gamsons study they rebelled .
Exp) This shows that peer support is linked to greater resistance
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Evaluate the strength that there is evidence to support the link between LoC and resisting obedience
P) There is evidence to support the link between Loc and resisting obedience
E) holland 1967 repeated milgrams baseline study and measured whether particpants were internals or externals . he found that 37% of internals did not continue , whereas only 23% of externals did not continue
Exp) This is therefore a strength for LoC because it shows that internals showed a greater resistance to authority
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evaluate the limitation that The role of LoC in resisting social influence may be exaggerated
P) A limitation is that the role of Loc in resisting social influence may be exaggerated
E)Rotter (1982) found that locus of control only comes into play in novel (new) situations
Exp) this is a limitation because it means that LoC is only helpful in explaining a narrow range of new situations
Impact ) this means that even if people have an internal LoC , people who have conformed in the past are more likely to in specific situations
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define minority influence
minority influence refers to situations where one person or small group of people influences the beliefs or behaviours of other people.
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who studied minority influence?
Moscovici first studied minority influence in the blue slide green slide study
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what was the aim of Moscovicis study into minority influence?
to examine the effect of a consistent minority on the majority using an unambiguous task
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what was the procedure of Moscovicis study into minority influence?
groups of 4 naive participants and 2 confederates
asked to estimate colour of 36 blue slides , where brightness and variations were altered.
in one condition the consistent minority 2 confedereates said the slides were green on all trials
in another condition the minority varied consistency of their responses
control group wasn't exposed to minority
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what were the results of Moscovicis study into minority influence?
in the consistent condition - 32% agreed the slides were green at least once and gave the same response as the minority
in the inconsistent condition - agreement fell to 1.25%
in control group only 2 wrong answers were give (0.25%)
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what are the three factors that effect minority influence?
consistency
commitment
flexibility
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how does consistency affect minority influence?
over time consistency from minoritys views increases the amount of interest from other people.
synchronic consistency- theyre all saying the same thing and/or consistently over time
diachronic consistency- theyve been saying the same thing for some time now
consistency makes people rethink their views - maybe they've got a point if they keep saying it.
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how does commitment affect minority influence?
minority influence is more powerful if the minority demonstrates dedication to the position e.g personal sacrifices, this shows they are not acting out of self interest.
sometimes minorities take part in dangerous activities to show commitment - the augmentation principle
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how does flexibility affect minority influence?
consistency could be seen as unreasonable and unbending and may be counter productive , if minority show flexibility by showing a possibility of compromise it may be effective. Nemeth (1986) suggested it is important to find a key balance between flexibility and consistency
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use process of change to explain minority influence
commitment, consistency and flexibility all make people think about the topic. If you hear something new you might think about it especially if its from a consistent and passionate source., deeper processing is important in the process of conversion to a different minority viewpoint.
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what is the snowball effect in relation to minority influence?
over time more people switch from majority to minority the faster this happens the faster the rate of conversion, the minority view gradually becomes the majority view and change has occurred
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one strength of minority influence (supporting research)
supporting evidence which shows importance of consistency - miscovici study
consistent minority - 36% agreed with them , inconsistent - agreement fell to 1.25%
implies consistency plays huge role in minority influence
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one limitation of minority influence (research has artificial tasks)
largely artificial tasks when researching minority influence
blue/green slide task artificial
results are not as easily generalised and applied to the outside world
lacks external validity
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what are the 6 steps/processes a minority can use in social change?
1) drawing attention
2) consistency
3) deeper processing
4) augmentation principle
5) snowball effect
6) social crypto amnesia
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what is social crypto amnesia?
a form of cognitive bias experienced by whole cultures , society remembers the change that happened but not the specific events that led to the change.
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what is social change?
social change occurs when whole societies rather than just individuals adopt new attitudes , beliefs and ways of doing things. social influence roles of conformity , obedience and minority influence can all play a role in this.
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what are the three conformity processes that are involved in social change?
dissent
NSI
ISI
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how do conformity processes affect social change?
social change can be brought about when members of society resist the pressure to conform to the majority (dissent) it can also be brought about when members of society see other groups with different values or behaviour and conform to these other groups.
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what are the 3 obedience processes in social change?
disobedient role models
legitimate authorities
gradual commitment
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a strength of research into the role of social influence processes in social change (support for NSI)
supporting research from Nolan et al , he hung notes on houses saying residents were trying to reduce energy usage , a significant decrease in energy was seen when compared to control group whose messages didn't reference others.. this shows conformity can lead to social change through NSI
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a limitation of research into social influence processes in social change (methodological issues with research)
methodological issues - Asch , Miscovici and Milgram criticised for artificial tasks. dynamic doesn't affect real life , cannot be used to explain social change in real world
