Social influence Flashcards

Question

Conclusion of Stanford prison experiment

Answer 1

-Social roles appear to have a strong influence over individuals behaviour. The guards became brutal and the prisoners became submissive -Roles were easily taken on by all participants. Even volunteers who came to perform specific functions (such as the 'prison chaplain') found themselves behaving as if they were in a real prison rather than a psychological study

Answer 2

(+)High control - over key variables such as selection of ptps. For example, emotionally stable individuals were chosen and randomly assigned to the role of prisoner or guard. This is one way that researchers controlled individual personality differences as an explanation of the findings. Strength as we can be confident that the findings are not being affected by confounding variables and that it is caused to the roles they were allocated to. This increases the internal validity and increases confidence in the conclusions about social roles.

Answer 3

Many aspects of Zimardo's prison that doesn't reflect real-life such as the maximum anticipated prison sentence being two weeks, lack of racism/abuse, threats of violence and ultimately the ptps could have asked to leave the study if they had wanted to. Banuazizi et al (1975) argued that ptps were merely play acting rather than conforming to role. Ptps performances were based heavily on stereotypes of how prisoners and guards are supposed to behave e.g. one of the guards claimed he based his role on a film character. Limitation as it may be difficult to generalise these finding to real-life.

Answer 4

McDermott (2019) argued that participants did behave as if the prison was real to them. For example, 90% of prisoners private conversations (which were monitored) were about prison life. Amongst themselves, they discussed how it was impossible to leave the SPE before their 'sentences' were over. 'Prisoner 416' later explained how he believed the prison was a real one but ran by psychologists rather than the government. Strength of SPE because it suggests the study did replicate the social roles of prisoners and guards in a real prison, giving the study a high degree of internal validity.

Answer 5

The ptps were male American students and therefore not representative of all people as it may be the case that males or male students will behave differently in this environment (i.e. more/less likely to conform to these roles) compared to other types of people. Limitation as the results are difficult to generalise and may not explain the extent to which all people conform to social roles, for example females or people that are not students (low external validity)

Answer 6

(+)High control (-)Low ecological validity (+)Counter - McDermott (-)Low population validity

Answer 7

carrying out the instructions of an authority figure e.g. following the orders of a police officer. It is assumed that without such an order the person wouldn't have acted in this way.

Answer 8

-40 volunteers (American men) -Told they were taking part in a study in the role of punishment on learning (real aim was to test obedience to authority) -Lab at Yale -Ptps were allocated role of 'teacher' and were told 'learners' (confederates) had to memorise word pairs. The allocation of roles was always fixed to ensure the real ptp was always the teacher. -teacher tested learner by giving them the first word of the word pair -teacher was told to administer an electric shock each time the learner got it wrong. The shocks started at a low voltage but this was increased for each wrong answer to a max of 450v - enough to kill -The shocks were not real but ptps did not know this and believed that they were real -the experimenter was dressed in a white lab coat and overseeing the ptp in the same room (also a confederate) -When the teacher became hesitant about administering the electric shocks, the experimenter would encourage him to continue by giving a series of prods such as 'please continue' and 'you have no other choice, you must go on'

Answer 9

-All ptps administered shocks of at least 300v despite some of them being extremely anxious whilst doing so. -65% of ptp obeyed instructions to administer the full 450v -Ptps showed signs of extreme tension including sweating, trembling and digging their nails into their hands. -Three ptps had 'full-blown uncontrollable seizures' -Suggests that under certain circumstances ptps will obey an authority figure, even when they feel uncomfortable doing so

Answer 10

(+)High control (-)Low ecological validity (-)Low population validity (-)Historical bias

Answer 11

uses the experimental method so has high control over EV's (e.g. the instructions given to ptps and the appearance of the experimenter) and can establish cause and effect. When using experimental method, researcher can be more confident that it is the IV (presence of researcher and the verbal prods he gave) that causes the DV (the number of ptps that gave the learner an electric shock of 450v). Strengths because we can be confident that results about obedience are not being affected by confounding variables and are therefore internally valid

Answer 12

Experiment was conducted in an unfamiliar controlled environment and the task was artificial because it involved giving strangers electric shocks which is not a normal everyday task. Limitation as the results may be difficult to generalise to real life situations of obedience such as following orders from your boss at work. (low external validity). However, it could be argued that the ptps did react to the situation as if it was real. For example, many of them showed signs of stress such as sweating and trembling and therefore it could be argued that the study has ecological validity to an extent.

Answer 13

Ptps in Milgram's study were all American males and therefore were not representative of all people. For example, it could be argued that Americans or males are more/less obedient compared to other people. Limitation because the results about obedience may not be generalisable to the behaviour of others for example females or people from other countries.

Answer 14

Milgram's study was conducted in 1963 when people may have been more obedient and conformist due to the fear created by the cold war. As it is unethical to repeat this study, it is impossible to know whether we would get the same results today. Limitation of Milgram's research because the findings of this study may not be generalisable outside of 1960's America and might not inform us of why people obey in contemporary society.

Answer 15

He deceived his ptps in many ways: they didn't know they weren't giving real electric shocks or that the learner and experimenter were actually confederates or the real aim of the study or that it was fixed that they were the teacher. Participants therefore could not give informed consent. Milgram also did not protect his participants from psychological harm as they became very stressed at the thought of giving a stranger an electric shock. For example, ... Limitation because it would go against the current BPS guidelines for conducting psychological research.

Answer 16

Milgram would have argued that it was necessary to deceive his ptps because if they knew the real aim of the study, this would cause them to change their behaviour and show demand characteristics (e.g. not obey) and therefore finding about obedience would not be valid as they would suggest that people are less obedient than they actually are.

Answer 17

-original = authority figure wore a white lab coat (65% obeyed) -Variation = authority figure wore no uniform (ordinary clothes) -> 20% went to full 450v -uniforms encourage obedience as they are recognised symbols of authority. We accept that someone in uniform is entitled to expect obedience because their authority is legitimate. Someone without uniform has less right to expect our obedience.

Answer 18

-Experiment at Yale uni (65% went to full 450v) -Variation: in run down offices (47.5% went to full 450v) -The prestigious uni environment gave Milgram's study LOA -More obedient in original as they perceived that the experimenter shared this legitimacy and that obedience was expected. When the location does not have integrity this lowers peoples confidence in the authority figure as it reduces their legitimacy. However, the obedience was still quite high in the offices because the ptps perceived the 'scientific' nature of this procedure

Answer 19

-original: teacher and learner in different rooms + teacher and authority figure in the same room (65%) -V1: Teacher and learner in the same room (40% 450v) -V2: Teacher and learner in the same room (teacher forces learners hand onto shock plate) = 30% went to 450v -V3: Teacher and authority figure in different rooms = 21% went to 450v and some even lied to the experimenter and kept giving the weakest shock level

Answer 20

-Decreased proximity allows people to psychologically distance themselves from the consequences of their actions. -For example, when the teacher and leaner were physically separated (baseline study) the teacher was less aware of the harm they were causing to the other person so they were more obedient -This may be because when the teacher is in closer proximity, they can experience the learners anguish more directly and are therefore less likely to experience the agentic state

Answer 21

(+)Research support (Bickman) (-)Population validity (+)High control (-)Low internal validity

Answer 22

Other studies have demonstrated the influence of situational variables on obedience. For example, Bickman (1974) conducted a field experiment in New York City where he had 3 confederates dressed in different outfits - a jacket and tie, a milk mans outfit and a security guards uniform. The confederates individually stood on the street and asked passer-by to perform tasks such as picking up litter or handing over a coin for the parking meter. Ptps were twice as likely to obey the confederate dressed as a security guard than in a jacket and tie. Supports the claim that uniform does have a powerful effect on obedience.

Answer 23

All American males and therefore not representative of all people. For example, it could be that Americans or males are more/less obedient compared to other people. Limitation as the results about location affecting obedience may not be generalisable to the behaviour of others, for example females or people from other countries. (low external)

Answer 24

strength of Milgrams research into factors affecting obedience is that he uses experimental method so therefore has high control over extraneous variable (e.g. the instructions given to ptps and the appearance of experimenter) and can establish cause and effect. When using this method, the experimenter can be confident that it is the IV (experimenter wearing uniform or no uniform) that causes the DV (the number of ptps that gave the learner a shock of 450v). Strength because we can be confident that results uniform affecting obedience are not affected by confounding variable and are therefore internally valid

Answer 25

Ptps may have been aware the procedure was faked. Orne and Holland (1968) made this a criticism of his baseline study and argued it is even more likely in his variations because of the extra manipulation of variable. For example, when the experimenter was replaced by a 'member of the public'. Even Milgram recognised that this situation was so contrived that some ptps may have worked out the truth. Limitation because in all his studies in all his studies it is unclear weather the findings are genuinely due to the operation of obedience or because of demand characteristics.

Answer 26

1)Agentic state 2)Autonomous state 3)Binding factors - aspects of the situation that allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour and thus reduce the moral strain they are feeling. Strategies could include shifting the responsibility to the victim or denying the damage they were doing to victims

Answer 27

-Mental state where a person does not feel responsible for their own actions -Instead they believe that they are acting for an authority figure i.e. as their agent -An agent is someone who acts for or in place of another -An agent does experience a high degree of anxiety when they realise what they are doing is wrong, but feel powerless to disobey

Answer 28

-opposite of the agentic state -they are free to behave according to their own principles and feels a sense of responsibility for their own actions -The process of shifting responsibility of ones own actions onto someone else is called the 'agentic shift'. Milgram suggested that this occurs when a person perceives someone else as an authority figure. The AF has greater power because they hold a higher position in a social hierarchy. In most social groups, when one person is in charge, others defer to the legitimate authority of this person and shift from autonomy to agency.

Answer 29

(+)Research support for agentic state (Hofling) (-)contradictory evidence (rank et al) (+)LOA supported by Milgram (-)Low ecological validity

Answer 30

Supported by Hoflings research. 22 nurses were asked to administer a double dose of a drug they had never heard of to a patient (the max dose was stated on the bottle). This order was made down the phone by a doctor they had never met. 21 out of 22 nurses went to administer the drug even though this was against the rules without a doctors signature. This suggests that they were in the agentic state where they do not believe themselves to be responsible, but attribute responsibility to the authority i.e. the doctor, giving the order. Strength because it provides evidence to suggest that the agentic state is a valid explanation for obedience and that Milgram's conclusion was also valid.

Answer 31

For example, Rank et al found that 16 out of 18 hospital nurses did disobey orders from a doctor to administer an excessive drug dose to a patient. The doctor was an obvious authority figure but almost all nurses remained autonomous, as did Milgram's ptps. Limitation because it suggests that the agentic state can only account for some situations of obedience and so limits the validity of the theory as an explanation of obedience in all situations.

Answer 32

In his original study, the authority figure wore a lab coat and 65% of ptps went up to 450v however, in the variation, the person giving orders wore ordinary clothes and obedience dropped to 20%. This suggests that when a person does not has LA obedience decreased because individuals believe the figure does not have the credentials to tell them what to do. Strength because it provides evidence to suggest that LA is a valid explanation of obedience.

Answer 33

The experiment was conducted in an unfamiliar controlled environment and the task was artificial as it involved giving strangers electric shocks which is not a normal everyday task. Limitation because the results may be difficult to generalise to real life situations of obedience such as following orders from your boss at work (low external). Therefore, providing weak evidence to support the LAO explanation of obedience.

Answer 34

A dispositional explanation, which suggests obedient behaviour is due to internal traits such as personality type. People with an AP have a tendency to be especially obedient to authority. They have extreme respect for authority and are submissive to it. They show contempt for people they perceive as having inferior social status/lower rank and have fairly conventional attitudes towards sex, race and gender. They believe that we need strong and powerful leaders to enforce traditional values. They are inflexible in their outlook and everything is either right or wrong - there are no 'grey areas'. It is measured using the 'F-scale'.

Answer 35

It is formed in childhood as a result of harsh parenting. People who have been brought up by strict parents who used harsh, physical punishments and have impossibly high standards often grow up to be very obedient

Answer 36

(+)Supported by research (Elms and Milgram) (-)Over simplistic explanation for obedience (-)Education may determine authoritarianism and obedience instead (-)Measured using the 'F-scale'

Answer 37

For example, Elms and Milgram interviewed a small sample of people who had participated in the original obedience studies and had been fully obedient. They all completed the F-scale as part of the interview. These 20 obedient ptps scored significantly higher on the overall F-scale than a comparison group of 20 disobedient ptps. Strength because the findings support Adorno et al's view that obedient people may well show similar characteristics to people who have an AP, therefore strengthening the validity of the dispositional explanation of obedience.

Answer 38

For example, the explanation only considers an individual's personality and ignores alternative explanations such as Milgram's situational explanations for obedience. For example, Milgram would claim that if the AF is wearing a uniform and they are in close proximity then individuals will be more likely to obey. Limitation of the AP as it may be that these situational variable have a greater influence on obedience levels.

Answer 39

Middendorp et al found that less educated people are consistently more authoritarian than the well-educated. Milgram also found that participants with lower levels of education tended to be more obedient than those with higher levels of education. Limitation of the AP as it may be that education may have a greater influence on obedience levels and therefore the AP explanation may not be entirely valid.

Answer 40

Greenstein calls the F-scale 'a comedy of the methodological errors' because it is a seriously flawed scale. For instance, it is possible to get a high score just by selecting 'agree answers'. This means that anyone with response bias is assessed as having an AP. Limitation of the AP because the way in which it is measured may not generate valid results from ptps and so research supporting the AP may be based upon flawed methodology. Therefore, this limits the validity and usefulness of the AP as an explanation of obedience.

Answer 41

1) Social support (situational) 2) Locus of control (dispositional)

Answer 42

-The perception that an individual has assistance available from other people, and that they are part of a supportive network. This can cause resistance to social influence because independent role models demonstrate that conforming/not obeying is an available option. When someone else does not conform, this breaks the unanimous position of the majority and therefore pressure to conform is reduced. -Disobedient peers therefore act as role models for the individuals own behaviour. The model challenges the legitimacy of the authority figure.

Answer 43

-Refers to an individuals perception of personal control over their own behaviour. This is usually measured along a scale with high internal LOC at one end and high external LOC at the other.

Answer 44

-High internals perceive themselves as having a great deal of personal control over their behaviour, and will take responsibility for their own actions. Their actions are seen as a product of their own ability and effort. -They are more likely to resist social influence/pressure to conform and less likely to obey than those with an external LOC. -They will be less influenced by others because they are in control of their own behaviour, are confident and tend not to need social approval the way that those with an external LOC do. They are also less likely to rely on the opinions of others and tend not to need approval from a group or an authority figure.

Answer 45

-High externals perceive their behaviour as being caused more by external influences, luck or fate. They are more likely to give in to social pressure to conform or obey

Answer 46

(+)Supported by Asch - SS (+)Supported by Shute - LOC (-)Theory that ppl with a high internal LOC are more likely to demonstrate independent behaviour is that it is over simplistic (-)Explanation for resisting social influence may have been exaggerated

Answer 47

For example, in one of Asch's variations he found when he introduced the presence of an ally who gave the correct answer (provided social support for the real ptp) it caused conformity levels to drop from 36.8% to 5.5%. Strength of the explanation because it shows that the presence of an ally breaks the unanimity of a majority and makes it easier to not conform. This suggests that social support is a valid explanation of resisting conformity.

Answer 48

There is a great deal of research that supports that individuals with a high internal LOC are more likely to demonstrate independent behaviour. For example, Shute found that people with an internal LOC were less likely to conform to peer pressure on attitudes to drugs than people with an external LOC. Strength of the theory as the research demonstrates that people with a high internal LOC are more likely to resist conformity as the theory suggests.

Answer 49

Many psychologists believe Rotter's measure of LOC is too general and inflexible as the two attribution styles can be used interchangeably and at different times. For example, people may show an internal LOC when they are in college and study very hard for their exams because they believe they are responsible and in control of the grades they achieve. However, the same person may show an external LOC when it comes to their romantic relationships and believe the success of such relationship is due to external forces such as luck and fate.

Answer 50

For example, Rotter points out that LOC only comes into play in novel situations. It has very little influence over our behaviour in familiar situations where our previous experiences will always be more important. Limitation because it means that people who have conformed or obeyed in specific situations in the past are likely to do so again, even if they have a high internal LOC. This suggests that LOC is not the only explanation for resisting social influence and there may be other explanations that have more influence.

Answer 51

A form of social influence in which a minority of people persuade others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours. Leads to internalisation in which private attitudes are changes as well as public behaviours and is a permanent change.

Answer 52

1)Consistency 2)Commitment 3)Flexibility

Answer 53

Minority group will be more successful if all of them have the same message over time. By keeping this message the same (consistent), a minority is harder for the majority to ignore and sends a message that an alternative view to the majority is available. The majority is unlikely to pay attention to the minority if they are not consistent in their argument.

Answer 54

They may take part in extreme activities in order to draw attention to themselves. It is important that these activities are at some risk/self-sacrifice to the minority because this demonstrates commitment to the cause. Majority group will then pay more attention, the 'augmentation principle'.

Answer 55

the 'snowball effect'. This is when overtime increasing numbers of people switch from the majority position to the minority position. They have become 'converted'. Gradually, the minority view becomes the new majority view and change has occurred. They have internalised the minorities position.

Answer 56

(+)Supported by research (consistency) - Moscovici (-)Power of minority influence (+)research support for flexibility (Nemeth et al) (+)Process of consistency, commitment and flexibility can be seen in real life.

Answer 57

Demonstrated minority influence in a study where a group of six people were asked to view a set of 36 blue-coloured slides that varied in intensity and then state whether the slides were blue or green. In each group there were two confederates who consistently said the slides were green. The study showed that a consistent minority opinion had a greater effect on changing views of the ptps than an inconsistent condition. This demonstrates that consistency is a factor which is important for when a minority is trying to influence a majority.

Answer 58

The effect may not be powerful. For example, in Moscovici's research the figure for agreement with a consistent minority was very low, on average only 8%. Limitation of minority influence as it suggests that it is quite a low rate and not a useful concept.

Answer 59

For example, Nemeth et al stimulate a jury situation whereby group members discussed the amount of compensation to be paid to someone in a ski-lift accident. When a confederate put forward an alternative view and refused to change his position, this had no effect on other group members. A confederate who compromised, and therefore showed some degree of shift towards the majority, did exert an influence on the rest of the group. However, influence was only evident in those who shifted late in negotiations (showing flexibility) rather than those who shifted earlier (perceived as having 'caved in' to the majority). this suggests that flexibility does play a role in minority influence but that it is only effective at changing the majority opinion in certain circumstances.

Answer 60

For example, Rosa Parks in 1955 refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. She was arrested and fined, but her lonely act of defiance drew attention to her view and she began a movement that ended legal racial segregation in America. The movement kept their message the same over time e.g. the Montgomery bus boycott that lasted 381 days. Strength of commitment because it demonstrated that engaging in activities that present some risk by the minority (commitment), does influence the majority view. It also is a strength of consistency because having the same message over time, also showed to influence the majority.

Answer 61

occurs when a society as a whole adopts new beliefs or ways of behaving, through the process of minority influence e.g. the snowball effect. Examples include, the women's suffragette movement, gay rights and reduced smoking in public places.

Answer 62

1)Drawing attention to an issue, if their views are different to those held by the majority, this creates a conflict that they are motivated to reduce. For example, The suffragettes used educational, political and militant tactics to draw attention to the fact that women were denied the same voting right as men.

Answer 63

2)Cognitive conflict, the minority creates a conflict between what majority group members currently believe and the position held by the minority. This doesn't necessarily result in a move towards the minority position, but it does mean that majority group members think more deeply about the issues being challenged. For example, The suffragettes created a conflict for majority group members between the existing status quo (only men allowed to vote) and the position advocated by the suffragettes (votes for women). Some dealt with this conflict by moving towards the position advocated by the suffragettes, others simply dismissed it.

Answer 64

3)Consistency of position, research on minority influence has established that minorities tend to be more influential in bringing about social change when they express their arguments consistently (over time and with each other). For example, the suffragettes were consistent in their views, regardless of the attitudes of those around them. Protests and political lobbying that continued for years, plus the fact that women played a visible role in WW1, eventually convinced society that some women were ready to vote.

Answer 65

4)The augmentation principle. If a minority appears to be willing to suffer for their views, they are seen as more committed and so taken more seriously by others. For example, the suffragettes were willing to risk imprisonment or even death from hunger strike, their influence became more powerful (i.e. it was augmented)

Answer 66

5)The snowball effect. Minority influence initially has a relatively small effect but this then spreads more widely as more and more people consider the issues being promoted, until it reaches a 'tipping point', at which point it leads to a wide-scale social change. For example, universal suffrage (all adult citizens having the vote) was finally accepted by the majority of people in the UK.

Answer 67

6)Social cryptomnesia. People have a memory that change has occurred but don't remember how it has happened. For example, some people have no memory of the events that les to change e.g. when women couldn't vote.

Answer 68

(+)Supported by Asch (-)Social change through minority influence is very gradual (+)Minority influence and in particular the role of consistency is supported by research (-)Social norms approach (changed caused by conformity) is that it is not always effective

Answer 69

The theory that breaking the unanimity of a majority can influence social change is supported by Asch's research. For example, in one of Asch's variations he found that when, he introduced an ally who gave the correct answer (so resisted the majority) it caused conformity levels to drop from 33% to 5.5%. Strength of the explanation because Asch's study demonstrates that when an alternative view is put forward conformity to the majority viewpoint decreases and social change is therefore more likely to happen.

Answer 70

The role played by minority influence may be limited since minorities such as the suffragettes rarely bring about social justice quickly. This is because there is a strong tendency for human beings to conform to the majority position, people are more likely to maintain the status quo rather than engage in social change. Limitation as it suggests that the influence of a minority is frequently more latent than direct (i.e. it creates the potential for change rather than actual social change).

Answer 71

For example, Moscovici found that when confederates consistently gave the wrong answer ptps conformed in 8.42% of the trials. However when the confederates were inconsistent, ptps conformity to the wrong answer dropped to 1.25%. Strength of consistency because the research demonstrates that when a minority is consistent the majority are more likely to conform to when the minority are inconsistent.

Answer 72

DeJong et al tested the effectiveness of social norms marketing campaigns to drive down alcohol use amongst students across 4 different college sites. Despite receiving normative information that corrected their misconceptions of subjective drinking norms, students in the social norms condition did not report lower self-reported alcohol consumption as a result of the campaign. Limitation as it suggests that not all social norm interventions are able to produce social change.

Answer 73

1)Drawing attention to an issue 2)Cognitive conflict 3)Consistency of position 4)The augmentation principle 5)The snowball effect 6)Social cryptomnesia

Answer 74

1)Deceived ptps in many ways: they didn't know they weren't giving real electric shocks or that the experimenter and learner were confeds or the real aim or that it was fixed that they were the teacher. therefore couldn't give fully informed consent 2)Didn't protect his ptps from psychological harm as they became very stresses at the thought they were giving a stranger electric shocks. For example, they shoed signs of tension incl trembling, stuttering, nervous laughter, biting lips and digging finger =nails into palm of hands. Would go against current BPS ethical guidelines for conducting psychological research. However he did interview ptps after study and the majority said that they were pleased to have been involved in the study. Milgram would also argue that it was necessary to deceive his ptps...

Social influence Flashcards

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