social influence + memory Flashcards
(163 cards)
1
Q
conformity
A
Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard..
2
Q
soloman asch baseline procedure study:
A
- wanted to find to what extent people would conform, even when clearly wrong
- 123 american men, in each group pps sat second to last on table with 6-8 confederates
- given a card with a line, and then shown 3 lines, A,B,C -> obvious correct answer, but confederates answered wrong.
3
Q
Soloman Asch (1951) baseline procedure aims:
A
Asch designed a procedure to measure the extent that people conformed to the opinion of others, even in a situation when the others’ answers were clearly wrong.
4
Q
Soloman Asch (1951) baseline procedure findings and conclusions:
A
Asch found that the naive participants conformed 36.8% of the time. this shows a high level of conformity when the situation is unambiguous. there were individual differences.
25% of the pts never gave a wrong answer e.g never conformed
75% conformed at least once
Asch conducted further studies where he showed that certain variables lead to less or more conformity.
5
Q
variables investigated by Asch: group size
procedure, findings and explanation
A
procedure - asch varied the number of confederated in each group between 1-15
findings - the relationship between group size and level of conformity was curvilinear
if there were two confederates, conformity to the wrong answer was 13.6%. when there were three confederates, conformity those to 31.8%. But the presence of more confederates made little difference - conformity rate soon levelled off
explanation - people very sensitive to opinions of other people because just one or two confederates was enough to sway opinion.
6
Q
variables investigated by Asch: unanimity
procedure, findings and explanation
A
Asch wondered if a non conforming confederate would affect the naive participants conformity.
procedure - asch introduced a dissenting confederate - sometimes they gave the correct answer and sometimes a different wrong answer
findings - in the presence of a dissenter, conformity reduced on average to less than a quarter of the level it was when the majority was unanimous
explanation - having a dissenter enabled the naive participant to behave more independently
this was true even when the dissenter disagreed with the genuiene pts
this suggests that the influence of the majority depends to a large extent on it being unanimous.
7
Q
variables investigated by Asch: task difficulty
procedure, findings and explanation
A
procedure - asch made the line judging task harder by making stimulus line and comparison lines more similar in length
this meant it became harder for the genuiene participants to see the differences between the lines
finding - conformity increased
explanation - the situation is more ambiguous, so we are more likely to look to others for guidance and to assume they are right and we are wrong
this is informational social influence.
8
Q
two limitations of Asch’ baseline procedure study: (demand characteristics/groupy / women vs men)
A
- one limitation is that the situation and task were artificial
the pts knew they were in a research study (demand characteristics). the task was trivial and there was no reason not to conform
also, Fiske (2014) argues ‘Asch’s groups were not very groupy’ (not like real groups)
this means the findings do not generalise to every day life (especially those situations where the consequences of conformity and important)
- another limitation is that Asch’s findings have limited application
only American men were tested by Asch, Neto (1995) suggested that women might be more conformist, possibly because they are more concerned about social relationships (and being accepted)
also, the USA is an individualist culture and studies in collectivist cultures e.g china have found higher conformity rates
this means Asch’s findings tell us little about conformity in women and people from some cultures.
9
Q
one strength of Asch’s baseline procedure study + CP: (maths)
A
- one strength is evidence to support Asch’s findings
Lucas et al (2006) asked pts to solve ‘easy’ and ‘hard’ maths problems. Pts are given answers that (falsely) claimed to be from other students
the pts conformed more when the problems were harder
this shows that Asch was correct that task difficulty is one variable affecting conformity
CP: conformity is more complex than Asch thought. Lucas et als study showed that conformity was related to confidence, high confidence = less conformity
this shows that individual level factors interact with situational ones. but asch did not investigate individual factors.
10
Q
types of conformity:
A
Internalisation, identification, compliance.
11
Q
what is internalisation conformity
A
when an individual thinks the group is right
when a person genuinely accepts group norms. it results in private as well as public change of opinions/behaviour
the change is usually permanent and persist in the absence of group members because attitudes have become part of how the person thinks (internalised).
12
Q
what is identification conformity
A
when an individual values the groups opinions
when we identify with a group that we value, we want to become part of it
so we don’t publicly change our opinions/behaviour, even if we don’t privately agree with everything the group stands for.
13
Q
what is compliance conformity
A
temporary agreement
involves ‘going along with others’ in public, but privately not changing opinions/behaviour
this results in only a superficial change and the opinion/behaviour stops as soon as group pressure ceases.
14
Q
explanations for conformity: informational social influence (ISI)
A
ISI is about information, a desire to be right
-often we are uncertain about what behaviour or beliefs are right or wrong. you may not know the answer to a question in class, but if most of your class gives an answer, you go along with them because you feel they are probably right
-ISI is a cognitive process - people generally want to be right. ISI leads to inetrnalisation
ISI occurs in situations that are ambiguous
- ISI is most likely in situations which are new so it isn’t cleat what is right
- it may happen when decisions have to be made quickly, when we assume the group is likely to be right.
15
Q
explanations for conformity: normative social influence (NSI)
A
NSI is about norms, a desire to behave like others and not look foolish
- NSI concerns what is ‘normal’ behaviour for a social group. norms regulate the behaviour of groups and individuals
- NSI is an emotional rather than cognitive process - people prefer social approval rather than rejection. NSI leads to compliance.
16
Q
explanations for conformity: normative social influence (NSI)
NSI occurs in unfamiliar situations and with people you know
A
NSI is most likely in situations where you don’t know the norms and look to others about how to behave
NS occurs in situations with strangers if you don’t want to be rejected. or with people we know because we are concerned about the social approval of friends
it may be more pronounced in stressful situations where people have a need for social support.
17
Q
One strength of NSI (writing answers)
A
There is research support
Asch found many participants conformed rather than give the correct answer because they were afraid of disapproval
when participants wrote down answers (no normative pressure), conformity fell to 12.5%
this shows that at least some conformity is due to a desire not to be rejected by the group for disagreeing with them.
18
Q
One strength of ISI + CP (Lucas / cant differentiate)
A
There is research support
Lucas et al found participants conformed more to incorrect answers when maths problems were difficult (when easy problems, participants ‘knew their own mind’
for hard problems the situation was ambiguous so they relied on the answers they were given
this supports ISI because the results are what ISI would predict
CP: it is unclear if NSI or ISI operate in studies and real life. A dissenter may reduce the power of NSI (social support) or reduce the power of ISI (alternative source)
therefore ISI and NSI are hard to separate and operate together in most real world situations.
19
Q
One limitation of NSI (nAffiliators)
A
individual differences in NSI
some people are concerned about being liked by others - nAfilliators who have a strong need for ‘affiliation’ (need to relate to other people)
NcGee and Teevan found that students who were nAffiliators were more likely to conform
this shows NSI underlines conformity for some people more than for others - an individual difference not explained by a theory of situational pressures.
20
Q
Zimbardo (1973) Stanford Prison Experiment: procedure
A
imbardo et al set up a mock person in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford university to investigate the effect of social roles on conformity
21 male student volunteers were involved in the study - selected by psychological testing that showed them to be ‘emotionally stable’
they were randomly allocated the role of the guard or prisoner.
21
Q
what were the two routes social roles were encouraged by
A
- uniform
prisoners were strip searched, given a uniform and number (no names), which encouraged de individuation
guards enforced rules, had own uniform with handcuffs etc
- instructions about behaviour
prisoners were told they could not leave but would have to ask for parole
guards were told they had complete power over the prisoners.
22
Q
Zimbardo (1973) Stanford Prison Experiment: findings & conclusions
A
the guards played their roles enthusiastically and treated prisoners harshly
the prisoners rebelled within two days - they ripped their uniforms, shouted and swore at the guards
the guards retaliated with fire extinguishers and harassed the prisoners - reminder of their powerless role e.g frequent headcounts, including at night
the guards’ behaviour threatened the prisoners’ psychological and physical health. for example:
after the rebellion was put down, the prisoners became subdued, anxious and depressed
three prisoners were released early because they showed signs of psychological disturbance
one prisoner went on hunger strike; the guards attempted to force feed him and punished him by putting him in ‘the hole’, a tiny dark closet
the study was stopped after 6 days instead of the intended 14
social roles are powerful influences on behaviour - most conformed strongly to their role
guards became brutal, prisoners became submissive
other volunteers also easily conformed to their roles in the prison e.g the ‘chaplain’.
23
Q
One strength of Zimbardo’s study (control)
A
- the control over key variables
emotionally stable participants were recruited and randomly allocated the roles of guard or prisoner
the guards and prisoners had those roles only by chance. so their behaviour was due to the role itself and not their personalities
this control increased the study’s internal validity, so we have more confidence in drawing conclusions about the effect of social roles n conformity.
24
Q
one limitation of zimbardos study + CP (lack of realism / prison convos)
A
- it lacked the realism of a true prison
Banuazizi et al suggested participants were play acting. their performances reflected stereotypes of how prisoners and guards are supposed to behave
one guard based his role on a character from the film ‘cool hand Luke’. prisoners rioted because that’s what they thought prisoners did
this suggests the study tells us little about conformity to social roles in actual prisons
CP: participants behaved as if the prison was real, e.g 90% of conversations about prison life, prisoner 416 believed it was a prison run by psychologists
this suggests the study replicated the roles of guard and prisoner just as in a real prisoner, increasing interval validity.
25
another limitation of Zimbardo's study (exaggeration)
He exaggerated the power of roles
the power of social roles to influence behaviour may have been exaggerated in his study
only a third of the guards behaved brutally. another third applied the rules fairly. the rest supported the prisoners, offering them cigarettes and reinstating privileges
this suggests the study overstates the view that the goats were conforming to a brutal role and minimised dispositional influences e.g personality.
26
Milgram (1963) baselime obedience study: procedure
Stanley milligram recruited 40 American male participants supposedly for a study of memory
each participant arrived at Milgrams lab and drew lots for their role
a confederate ('Mr Wallace') was aways the learner while the true participant was the teacher
an 'experimenter' (another confederate) wore a lab coat. the teacher could hear but not see the leaner
the teacher had to give the leaner an increasingly severe electric 'shock' each time he made a mistake on the task. the shocks increased in 15 volt steps up to 450 volts
the shocks were fake but the shock machine was labelled to make them increasingly severe
if the teacher wished to stop, the experimenter gave a verbal 'prod' to continue.
27
Milgram (1963) baselime obedience study: findings
12.5% (5 pts) stopped at 300 volts
65% continued to 450 volts, highest level
observations (qualitative data) - pts showed signs of extreme tension. three had full blown (uncontrollable seizures)
before the study, milligram asked 14 psychology students to predict how they thought the naive participants would respond. the students estimated that no more than 3% would continue to 450 volts, so the baseline findings were unexpected
after the study, pts were debriefed. follow up questionnaire showed 84% were glad they participated.
28
Milgram (1963) baselime obedience study: conclusions
we obey legitimate authority even if it means that our behaviour causes harm to someone else
certain situational factors encourage obedience.
29
a strength of Milgrams study
- replications have supported Milgrams research findings
in a French tv documentary/game show, contestants were paid to give fake) electric shocks when ordered by the presenter to the other participants (actors0
80% gave the maximum 460 volts to an apparently unconscious man. their behaviour was like that of Milgrams pts e.g many signs of anxiety
this supports his original findings about obedience to authority.
30
a limitation of Milgrams study + CP (shocks real / puppy’s)
- his study lacked internal validity
Orne and Holland (1968) argued that pts guessed the electric shocks were fake. so they were 'play acting'
this was supported by Perrys discovery that only half of the pts believed the shock were real
this suggests that pts may have been responding to demand characteristics
CP: however, Sheridan and king's participants gave real shocks to a puppy. 54% of males and 100% of females delivered what they thought was a fatal shock
this suggests the obedience in Milgrams study might be genuine.
31
another limitation of Milgrams study (blind obedience)
the findings are not due to blind obedience
Haslam et al (2014) found the every participant given the first three prods obeyed the experiment, but those given the fourth prod disobeyed
according to social identity theory, the first three prods required identification with the science of the research but the fourth prod required blind obedience
this shows that the findings are best explained in terms of identification with scientific aims and not as blind obedience to authority.
32
explanations for obedience based on situational variables: proximity (closeness of teacher and learner)
in the baseline study, the teacher could hear the learner but not see him
in the proximity variation, teacher and learner were in the same room and the obedience rate dropped from 65% to 40%
in the touch proximity variation, the teacher forced the learners hand onto a shock plate. obedience rate was 30%
in the remote instruction variation, the experimenter left the room and gave instructions by telephone.. the obedience rate was 20.5% and participants often pretended to give shocks
explanation - decreased proximity allows people to psychologically distance themselves from the consequences of their actions
for example, when the teacher and learner were physically separated, the teacher was less aware of the harm done, so was obedient.
33
explanations for obedience based on situational variables: location (prestige of setting)
the study was conducted in a run down building rather than the prestigious Yale university (as in the baseline)
obedience dropped to 47.5%
explanation - obedience was higher in the university because the setting was legitimate and had authority (obedience was expected).
34
explanations for obedience based on situational variables: uniform (communicates authority)
in the baseline study, the experimenter wore a grey lab coat (a kind of uniform)
in one variation, he was called away by an 'inconvenient' phone call at the start of the procedure. his role was taken over by an 'ordinary member of the public' in everyday clothes
obedience fell to 20%, lowest of these variations
explanation - a uniform is a strong symbol of legitimate authority granted by society, someone without a uniform has less right to expect obedience.
35
all the variations of percentages of obedience;
65% baseline study at Yale university
47.5% location variation
40% proximity variation
30% touch proximity variation
20.5% remote instruction variation
20% uniform variation.
36
one strength of research of situational variables (street uniform)
- research support for the influence of situational variables
Bickmans (1974) confederated dressed in different outfits (jacket, tie, milkman, security guard) and issues demands e.g pick up litter to people in the streets of New York city
people were twice as likely to obey the security guard than the jacket/tie confederate
this shows that a situational variable, such as uniform, does have a powerful effect on obedience.
37
another strength of research of situational variables + CP (dutch)
- cross cultural replication of Milgrams research
Researchers worked with dutch participants, who were ordered to say stressful comments to interviewees
they found 90% obedience, and obedience fell when proximity decreased (person giving orders not present)
this shows that Milgrams findings are not limited to American males but are valid across cultures
CP: however, smith and bond (1998) note that most replications took place in societies e.g Spain, Australia, culturally not that different from the US
therefore, we cannot conclude that Milgrams findings about proximity location and uniform apply to people in all or most cultures.
38
a limitation of research into situational variables (suspicious manipulation)
- low internal validity in the studies
Orne and holland suggested these variations, compared to the baseline study, were even more likely to trigger suspicion because of the extra experimental manipulation
in the variation where the experimenter was replaced by a 'member of the public; even milgram recognised this was so contrived that some participants may have worked it out
therefore it is unclear whether the results are due to obedience or because the participants saw the deception and 'play acted' i.e. were influenced by demand characteristics.
39
obedience- agent state: (act on behalf of another person)
Milgram proposed that obedience to destructive authority occurs because a person becomes an 'agent', someone who acts for or in place of another
in an agent state, a person feels no personal responsibility for their actions.
40
obedience- agent state: autonomous state
not an agent
'autonomy' means to be independent or free. so a person in an autonomous state behaves according to their principles and feels responsible for their actions.
41
obedience- agent state: agentic shift
moving to agent state
the shift from autonomy to being an 'agent' is called the agent shift. milgram suggested that this occurs when we perceive someone else as an authority figure. this person has power because of their position in a social hierarchy.
42
obedience- agent state: binding factors
reduce 'moral strain'
binding factors are aspects of a situation that allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect f their behaviour and reduce the 'moral strain' they feel
milgram proposed a number of strategies the individual uses, such as shifting the responsibility to the victim or denying the damage they are doing to victims.
43
obedience - explanations of legitimacy of authority
- society has hierarchy, the higher in heirarchy the more power
- we accept their authority because it keeps society stable and organised - authority has right to give orders and punish if needed
- we trust them to use power fairy, but some use for destructive purposes, e.g HItler misused authority ordering people to behave in cruel and dangerous ways
44
one strength of the agent state explanation (milgram)
- it has research support
most of milligrams pts asked the 'experimenter', who is responsible if Mr Wallace (the learner) is harmed?
when the experimenter replied 'im responsible' the pts went through the procedure quickly without objecting
this shows pts acted more easily as an agent when they believed they were not responsible for their behaviour.
45
one limitation of the agent state explanation (nurse/doctor)
- the agentic shift doesn't explain many research findings
for example, Rank and Jacobson found that most nurses disobeyed a doctors order to give an excessive drug dose
the doctor was an authority figure but the nurses remained autonomous and did not shift into an agent state. the same is true for some of Milgrams pts
this shows that agentic shift can only explain obedience in some situations.
46
One strength of legitimacy of authority explanation (cultural differences)
- can explain cultural differences
research shows that countries differ in obedience to authority
for example, 16% of Australian women obey, 85% of German pts did
this shows that authority is more likely seem as legitimate in some cultures, reflecting upbringing.
47
One limitation of legitimacy of authority explanation (nurses/doctors)
- legitimacy cannot explain all (dis)obedience
people may disobey when they accept the legitimacy of hierarchical authority structure
for example, most of Rank and Jacobsons nurses were disobedient, as were some of Milgrams pts
this suggests that innate tendencies towards (dis)obedience may be more important than legitimacy of authority.
48
obedience - the authoritarian personality: high obedience is pathological
Adorno et al (1950) believed that unquestioning obedience is a psychological disorder, and tried to find its causes in the individuals personality.
49
obedience - the authoritarian personality: extreme respect for authority and contempt for 'inferiors'
Adorno et al concluded that people with an Authoritarian personality are especially obedient to authority.
They:
- have exaggerated respect for authority and submissiveness to it
- express contempt for people of inferior social status
authoritarians tend to follow orders and view 'other' groups as responsible for society's ills.
50
obedience - the authoritarian personality: originates in childhood e.g overly strict parenting
authoritarian personality forms in childhood through harsh parenting - extremely strict discipline, expectation of absolute loyalty, impossibly high standard, and severe critcism
it is also characterised by conditional love - parents' love depends entirely on how their child behaves.
51
obedience - the authoritarian personality: hostility is displaced into social inferiors
these experiences create resentment and hostility in the child, but they cannot express these feelings directly against their parent because they fear reprisals
so the feelings are displaced onto others who are weaker - this is scapegoating. this is a psychodynamic explanation.
52
Adorno et al (1950) Procedure (the authoritarian personality)
- Study investigated unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups of more than 2000 middle- class white Americans.
- Several scales were developed - facism scale (f-scale).
- 'Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues for children to learn'.
- ' Hardly anything lower than a person who does not feel great love, gratitude and respect for his parents'..
53
Adorno et al (1950) Findings
Authoritarians (who scored high on the F-scale and other measures) identified with 'strong' people and were contemptuous of the 'weak'.
They were conscious of their own and others' status, showing excessive respect and deference to those of higher status.
Authoritarian people also had a cognitive style where there was no 'fuzziness' between categories of people, with fixed and distinctive stereotypes about other groups..
54
a strength of the authoritarian personality + CP (evidence from milgram)
- evidence that authoritarians are obedient
Elms and Milgram interviewed 20 fully obedient participants from Milgrams original obedience studies
they scored significantly higher on the F scale than a comparison group of 20 disobedient participants
this suggests that obedient people may share many characteristics of people with an Authoritarian personality
CP: however, subscales of the F scale showed that obedient pts had characteristics that were unusual for authoritarians. for example, they did not experience high levels of punishment in childhood
this suggests a complex link and means that authoritarianism is not a useful predicator of obedience.
55
one limitation of the authoritarian personality (nazis)
- authoritarianism can't explain whole country behaviour
millions of individuals in Germany displayed obedient and anti semitic behaviour - but can't all have had the same personality
it seems unlikely the majority of germanys population had an authoritarian personality. a more likely explanation is that the germans identified with the Nazi state
therefore social identity theory ( the view that our behaviour and attitudes are strongly influenced by those of the groups we identify with) may be a better explanation.
56
another limitation of authoritarian personality (political bias)
- the F scale is political biased
Christie and Jahoda suggest the F scale claims to measure tendency towards extreme right wing ideology
but right wing and left wing authoritarianism both insist on complete obedience to political authority
therefore Adornos theory is not a comprehensive dispositional explanation as it doesn't explain obedience to left wing authoritarianism i.e it is politically biased.
57
Resistance to social influence - social support -resisting conformity
- Conformity is reduced by a dissenting peer.
- Pressure to conform is reduced if the other people are not conforming.
- Asch's research showed that the dissenter doesn't have to give the 'right' answer.
- Simply someone else not following the majority frees others to follow their own conscience. The dissenter acts as a 'model'.
- he dissenter shows the majority is no longer unanimous.
58
Resistance to social influence - social support -resisting obedience
obedience us reduced by one other dissenting partner
pressure to obey can be reduced in another person is seen to disobey
milligrams research - obedience behaviour greatly decreased in the disobedient peer condition (from 65% to 10%)
the participant may not follow the disobedient peer but the dissenters disobedience frees the participant to act rom their own conscience
a disobedient model challenges the legitimacy of the authority figure.
59
Resistance to social influence - locus of control - internals place control within themselves, externals place control outside themselves
Rotter (1966)described interval versus external LOC
internals believe things that happen to them are largely controlled by themselves e.g doing well in a test depends on how hard you work
externals believe things happen outside their control. if they fail an exam they say it was because they had a bad teacher or bad luck because the questions were hard.
60
Resistance to social influence - locus of control - there is a continuum
LOC is not just being internal or external - there is a scale from one to the other and people differ in their position on it
high internals at one end and high externals at the other, low internals and low externals lie in between.
61
Resistance to social influence - locus of control - internals show greater resistance to social influence
pressure with internal LOC are more Kelt to resist pressures to conform of obey
1) if someone takes personal responsibility for their actions they were more likely to base their decisions on their own beliefs
2) people with high internal LOC are more confident, mire achievement orientated and have higher intelligence - traits that lead to greater resistance.
62
one strength for the role of social support (buddy)
- evident for the role of support in resisting conformity
in a programme to help pregnant adolescents to resist pressure to smoke, social support was given by an older 'buddy'
these adolescents were less likely to smoke at the end of the programme than a control group who did not have a buddy
this shows social support can help young people resist social influence in real world situations.
63
another strength for the role of social support (oil)
Gamson et all groups asked to give evidence for an oil company to use in a smear campaign
29 out of 33 groups (88%) rebelled against orders, much higher than in Milgrams studies
this shows how supporters can undermine legitimacy of authority and reduce obedience.
64
one strength of the role of LOC (milgram repeat)
- evidence to support the role of LOC in resisting obedience
Holland repeated milligrams study and measured whether pts were internals or externals
37% of internals did not continue to the highest shock level (they showed greater resistance). only 23% of externals did not continue
therefore resistance partly related to LOC, increasing the validity of this explanation of disobedience.
65
one limitation of the role of LOC (Twenge)
- not all refetch supports the role of LOC in resistance
Twenge et al analysed data from American LOC studies over 40 years, showing that people have become more independent but also more external
this is surprising - if resistance was linked to internal LOC we would expect people to have become more internal
therefore LOC may not be a valid explanation of resistance to social influence.
66
What is minority influence?
refers to how one personal or small group influences the beliefs and behaviour of other people
the minority may influence just one person, or a group of people - this is different from conformity where the majority does the influencing.
67
what is internalisation
beliefs changed
minority influence leads to internalisation - both public behaviour and private beliefs are changed
three processes - consistency, commitment, flexibility.
68
what is consistency
always doing the same thing
means the minoritys view gains more interest
consistency makes others rethink their own views ("maybe they've got a point iff they all think this way and they have kept saying it")
synchronic consistency - people in the majority are all saying the same thing
diachronic consistency - they've been saying the same thing for some time.
69
what is commitment
showing deep involvement
helps gain attention e.g through extreme activities
activities must create some risk to the minority to demonstrate commitment to the cause
augmentation principle - majority pay even more attention.
70
what is flexibility
showing willingness to listen to others
the minority should balance consistency and flexibility so they don't appear rigid
Nemeth (1986) argues that being consistent and repeating the same arguments and behaviours is seen as rigid and off putting to the majority
instead, the minority should adapt their point of view and accept reasonable counter arguments.
71
explaining the process of minority influence:
Individuals think deeply about the minority position because it is new/unfamiliar.
Snowball effect - over time, more people become converted' (like a snowball gathering more snow as it rolls along). There is a switch from the minority to the
majority. The more this happens, the faster the rate of conversion.
Gradually the minority view becomes the majority and social change has occurred..
72
a strength of minority influence (wood meta analysis)
- research supporting consistency
moscovici et al.(1969) found a consistent minority opinion had a greater effect on other people than an inconsistent opinion
wood et al (1994) conducted a meta analysis of almost 100 similar studies and found that minorities seen as being consistent were most influential
this confirms that consistency is a major factor in minority infleunce.
73
another strength of minority influence + CP (Martin hearing minority vs majority / distinguishment)
- research showing role of deeper processing
Martin et al gave pts a message supporting a particular viewpoint, and measured attitudes. then they heard an endorsement of view from either a minority or a majority. finally heard a conflicting view, attitudes measured again
pts were less willing to change their opinions to the new conflicting view if they had listened to a minority group than if they listened to a majority group
this suggests that the minority message had been more deeply processed and had a more enduring effect
CP: in research studies, majority/minority groups distinguished in terms of numbers. but there is more to majorities/minoirties than just numbers e.g power, status, commitment
this means research studies are limited in what they tell us about real world minority influence.
74
Limitation of minority influence (moscovici slides)
- minority influence research often involves artificial tasks
Moscovici et als task was identifying the colour of a slide, far removed from how minorities try to change majority opinion in the real world
in jury decision making and making political campaigning, outcomes are vastly more important, many a matter of life or death
findings of studies lack external validity and are limited in what they tell us about how minority influence works in real world situations.
75
coding procedure and findings
Baddeley (1966) gave different lists of words to four groups of pts to remember
procedure:
1. acoustically similar words e.g cat, cab, can or
2. acoustically dissimilar e.g pit, few, cow
3. semantically similar e.g great, large, big or
4. semantically dissimilar e.g good, huge, hot
findings:
when they did the task immediately, recalling from STM, recall worse with acoustically similar words, STM is coded acoustically
recall after 20 minutes, recalling from LTM worse with semantically similar words, LTM is coded semantically.
76
Capacity procedure and findings
Jacobs (1887) testing digit span
procedure:
researcher reads four digits and increases until the pts cannot recall the order correctly. final number indicates digit span
findings:
on average, the mean span for numbers was 9.3 and 7.3 for letters
Miller (1956) magic number 7 + - 2
procedure:
miller observed everyday practice, noted that things come in sevens - 7 days of week, 7 deadly sins etc
findings:
the span of STM is about 7 (plus or minus 2) but is increased by chunking - grouping sets of digits/letters into meaningful units.
77
duration of STM procedure and findings
Peterson and Peterson (1959) consonant syllables
procedure:
24 students were given a consonant syllable e.g YCG to recall and a 3 digit number to count backwards from until they were told to stop. the counting backwards was the prevent any maintenance rehearsal of the consonant syllable. the retention interval was varied: 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 secs
findings:
after 3 seconds, average recall was about 80%
after 18 sends, it was about 3%
STM duration is about 18 secs unless we repeat information over and over (verbal rehearsal).
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duration of LTM procedure and findings
Bahrick et al (1975) yearbook photos
procedure:
pts were 392 Americans aged between 17 and 74
recall was tested in various ways
1) recognition test - consisting 50 photos from high school yearbooks
2) free recall test - participants recalled names of their graduating class
findings;
recognition test - 90% accuracy after 15 years, 70% after 48 yrs
free recall test - 60& recall after 15 years, 30% after 48 yrs.
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one strength of baqddleys study (2 memory stores)
- it identified two memory stores
later research showed that there are exceptions to baddleys findings
but STM is mostly acoustic and LTM is mostly semantic
this led to the development of the multi store model.
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one limitation of Baddeleys study (artificial stimuli)
- it used artificial stimuli
the words used had no personal meaning to pts so tells us little about coding for everyday memory tasks
when processing more meaningful info, people use semantic coding even for STM
this means the findings of this study have limited application.
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one strength of Jacobs' study (replication)
- it has been replicated
this is a only study and may have lacked adequate controls (confounding variables e.g pts being distracted)
despite this, Jacobs' findings have been confirmed later in controlled studies e.g Bopp et al
this shows that Jacobs' study is a valid measure of STM digit span.
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one limitation of Millers research (overestimate)
- to may overestimate STM capacity
for example, Cowan (2001) reviewed other research
he concluded tat the capacity of STM was only about 4 (plus or minus 1) chunks
this suggests that the lower end of Millers estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items.
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one limitation of Peterson and Petersons study (meaningless stimuli)
- the meaningless stimuli
we sometimes try to recall meaningless things so the study is not completely irrelevant
but recall of consonant syllables does not reflect meaningful everyday memory tasks
therefore the study lacked external validity.
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one strength of Barrack et als study (external validity)
- it had high external validity
everyday meaningful memories e.g of peoples faces and names were studied
when lab studies were done with meaningless pictures to be remembers, recall rates were lower
this means that Barrack et als findings reflect a more 'real' estimate of the duration of LTM.
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the multi-store model of memory
The MSM describes how information flows through the memory system. memory is made of three stores linked by processing.
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sensory register:
- all stimuli from environment pass into sensory register
- coding in each store is modality specific , coding for visual info is iconic memory and coding acousitcally is echoic memory
- duration of material is less than half of second but a very high capacity
- info passes further into memory system if you pay attention to it.
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transfer from SR to STM:
information passes further into memory only if attention is paid to it.
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short term memory:
a limited capacity store of temporary duration
- coding - acoustic (based on sound)
- duration about 18 seconds unless the information is rehearsed
- capacity - between 5 and 9 (7 plus minus 2) items before some forgetter occurs.
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transfer from STM to LTM
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves. We can keep info in STM as long as we rehearse it.
If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM.
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long term memory:
a permanent memory store
- coding - mostly semantic
- duration - potentially up to a lifetime
- capacity - potentially unlimited.
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Retrieval from LTM
When we want to recall information stored in LTM it has to be transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval..
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one strength of the multi store memory model + CP (STM/LTM difference / everyday info)
- research support showing STM and LTM are different
Baddeley (1966) found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when using our STM (so STM coding is acoustic)
but we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMs (which shows LTM coding is semantic)
this supports the MSMs view that these two memory stores are serape and independent
CP: despite such apparent support, the studies ted not to use everyday information e.g faces, names. they use digits/letters or meaningless consonant syllables
therefore the MSM may not have valid model of how memory works in everyday life where memory tends to involve meaningful information.
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one limitation of the multi store model of memory (more than 1 STM)
- evidence suggesting there is more than one STM store
KF had amnesia (shallice and warrington), STM recall for digits was poor when we heard them, but much better when he read them
other studies confirm there may also be a separate STM store for non verbal sounds
therefore the MSM is wrong to claim there is just one STM store processing different types of information.
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another limitation of the multi store model of memory (prolonged rehearsal)
- prolonged rehearsal is not needed for STM-LTM transfer
Craik and Waston argued that there are types of rehearsal called maintenance and elaborative. maintenance is the one described in the MSM
but elaborate rehearsal is needed for long term storage. this occurs e.g when your link information to your existing knowledge, or think about its meaning
this suggests that the MSM does not fully explain how long term storage is achieved.
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types of LTM: episodic memory
stores events from our lives
this store has been likened to a diary of daily personal experiences
for example, your most recent visit to the dentist
they are time stamped - you remember when they happened and how they relate in time
they involve several elements - people, places, objects and behaviours are woven into one memory
you have to make a conscious effort to recall them.
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types of LTM: semantic memory
semantic memory is like a combination of an encyclopaedia and a dictionary
for example, it includes knowledge of such things as how to apply to university, the taste of an orange, and the meaning of words
semantic memories are not time stamped e.g we don't remember when we first heard about frozen
they are less personal than episodic memories and more about facts/knowledge we all share.
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types of LTM: procedural memory
Stores memories for how we do things (actions/skills)
Hard to explain to others - recall without conscious awareness/effort
Examples: driving a car, walking, climbing stairs
these are memories of how we do things
recall occurs without effort or awareness
these skills become automatic with practice
explaining the step by step procedure is hard because you do it without conscious recall.
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One strength of types of LTM + CP (evidence / lack of control)
- evidence on different types of LTM
clinical studies of brain damage e.g HM and wearing showed both had difficulty recalling events that had happened to them in their pasts - their episodic memory was impaired
but their semantic memories were relatively unaffected e.g Hm did not need the concept of a god explained to him) procedural memories were also in tact e.g wearing still remembered how to play the piano
this supports Tulvings view that there are different memory stories in LTM because one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected
CP: researchers lack control over key variables in clinical case studies - they do not now anything about the persons memory before damage. without this, it is difficult to judge exactly how much worse it is afterwards
this lack of control means that clinical studies are limited in what they can tell us about different types of LTM.
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one limitation of types of LTM (cortex)
- conflicting findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain
Buckner and Peterson reviewed research findings and concluded that semantic memory is located in the left prefrontal cortex and episodic with the right prefrontal cortex
but other studies e.g tulving et al have found that semantic memory was associated with the right prefrontal cortex and the reverse for episodic memory
this challenges any neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory as there is poor agreement on where each type might be located.
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another strength of types of LTM (helps with memory irl)
- understanding types of LTM allows psychologists to help people with memory problems
memory loss in old age is specific to episodic memory - it is harder to recall memories of recent experiences although past episodic memories are intact
belleville et al devised an intervention for older people targeting episodic memory, which improved their memory compared to a control group
this shows that distinguishing between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed.
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the working memory model:
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
WWM is a model of STM
The WWM is concerned with the 'mental space' that is active when we are temporarily storing information, for example, working on an arithmetic problem or playing chess or comprehending language.
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The central executive:
allocates subsystems
supervisory role - monitors incoming data, directs attention and allocates subsystems to tasks
it has very limited storage capacity.
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The phonological loop:
consists of a phonological store and an articulatory process
PL deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives.
it is subdivided into:
- acoustic store = temporarily stores verbal material
- articulatory loop = allows maintenance rehearsal of verbal material(repeating sounds to keep them in WM while they are needed).
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS):
Stores visual and/or spatial information when required, (e.g. recalling how many windows your house has).
also has limited capacity - according to baddeley about 3 or 4 objects
Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:
• Visual cache: stores visual data.
• Inner scribe: records arrangement of objects in visual field..
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Episodic buffer (EB):
Temporary store for information.
Integrates information processed in the other subsystems and links with LTM.
Maintains sense of time sequencing - recording episodes that are happening.
limited capacity of about 4 chuncks
added in 2000.
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one strength of the WMM + CP: (clinical evidence / other impairments)
- support from clinical evidence
for example, Shallice and warrington (1970) studied patient KF who had a brain injury
His STM for auditory information was poor but he could process visual information normally . For instance, his immediate recall of letters and digits was better when he read them (visual), than when they were read to him (acoustic)
his phonological loop was damaged but his VSS was intact
this supports the WMM view that there are seperate visual and acoustic memory stores
CP: KF may have had other cognitive impairments which might have affected his memory performance, apart from damage to his PL e.g trauma from the motorbike accident
this challenges evidence from clinical studies of brain injury that may have affected different systems.
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another strength of WWM (baddeley)
- studies of the dual task performance support the separate existence of the Visuo spatial sketchpad
Baddeley et als participants found it harder to carry out two visual tasks at the same time than do a verbal and a visual task together
this is because both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem. there is no competition with a verbal and visual task
therefore there must be a separate subsystem (the VSS) that processes visual input and also one for verbal processing (the PL).
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one limitation of the WMM: (lack of clarity)
- A lack of clarity over the central executive
Baddeley said the CE was the most important but least understood component of working memory
there must be more to the CE than just being 'attention' eg some believe it is made up of separate subcomponents
therefore the CE is an unsatisfactory component and this challenges the integrity of the model.
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explanations for forgetting: interference theory
when two pieces of information conflict with each other
forgetting occurs in LTM because we can't get access to memories even though they are available.
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What is proactive interference?
occurs when an older memory disrupts a newer one
for example, a teacher learns may names in the past and can't remember names of her current class.
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What is retroactive interference?
happens when a newer memory disrupts an older one
for example, a teacher learns may new names this year and can't remember the names of her previous students.
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why is interference worse when memories are similar?
Learning similar lists of words produced the most interference and the most forgetting (McGeoch and McDonald).
the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
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McGeoch and McDonald (1931) - effects of similarity: procedure
participants were asked to learn a list of words to 100% accuracy
then they were given a new list to learn. the new material varied in the degree which it was similar to the old:
- group 1: synonyms (words had same meanings as the originals)
- group 2: antonyms (words had opposite meanings to the originals)
- group 3: unrelated (words unrelated to the original ones)
- group 4: consonant syllables
- group 5: three digit numbers
- group 6: no new list - participants just rested (control group).
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McGeoch and McDonald (1931) - effects of similarity: findings and conclusions
performance depended on the nature of the second list. the most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall
this shows that interference is strongest when the memories are similar.
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one strength for interference explanation + CP (rugby / unusual situations)
- some support for interference in real world situations
Baddeley and hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they had played against during a rugby season
players did not play the same number of games. those who played most (more interference) had poorest recall
this shows that interference operates in some everyday situations, increasing the validity of the theory
CP: interference in everyday situations is unusual because the necessary conditions are relatively rare e.g similarity of memories does not occur often
therefore most everyday forgetting may be better explained by other theories e.g retrieval failure due to lack of cues.
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one limitation for interference explanation (overcome cues)
- interference effects may be overcome using cues
Tulving and Psotka gave participants lists of words organised into categories, not told what they were
recall of first list was 70% but fell with each new list (proactive interference). when given a cued recall test recall rose again to 70%
this shows that interference causes just a temporary loss access to material still in LTM -not predicted by theory.
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another strength of interference explanation (drug studies)
- support from drug studies
group 1 - took diazepam - stops new info reaching brain areas that process memories
group 2 - placebo
researchers gave pts a list of words and later asked them to recall the list, assuming the intervening experiences would act as interference
they found that when material was learned just before taking diazepam, later recall was better than a placebo group one week later - this is retrograde facilitation
the drug stopped new information reaching brain areas that process memories, so it could not retroactively interfere with stored information
this shows that the forgetting is due to interference - reducing the interference reduced the forgetting.
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explanations for forgetting - retrieval failure: lack of cues can cause retrieval failure
when information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
if the cues are not available at the time of recall, you might not access memories that are actually there.
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What is the encoding specificity principle?
tulving (1983)
cues help retrieval if the same ones are present both
1) at encoding (when we learn the material) and
2) at retrieval (when we are recalling it)
if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different, or if the cues are entirely absent, there will be some forgetting.
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some cues are encoded at the time of learning in a meaningful way:
meaningful links - letters the cue 'STM' leads you to recall lots of material about short term memory
not meaningful cues
- context dependant forgetting = recall depends on external cue (weather or a place)
- state dependant forgetting = recall depends on internal cue (feeling upset, being drunk).
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Godden and Baddeley (1975) context dependant forgetting: procedure
deep sea divers learned word lists and were later asked to recall them
condition 1 = learned on land, recall on land
condition 2 = learn on and, recall underwater
condition 3 = learn underwater, recall on land
condition 4 = learn underwater, recall underwater.
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Godden and Baddeley (1975) context dependant forgetting: findings and conclusions
accurate recall was 40% lower in conditions 2 and 3 (mismatched contexts) than in 1 and 4 (matched contexts)
retrieval failure was due to absence of encoded context cues at time of recall - material was not accessible.
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Carter and Cassaday (1998) state dependant forgetting: procedure
participants learned lists of words and later recalled them
they were given antihistamine drugs which has a mild sedative effect. this creates an internal physiological state different from the 'normal' state of being alert and awake
condition 1 = learn when on drug, recall on drug
condition 2 = learn when on drug, recall not on drug
condition 3 = learn when not on drug, recall on drug
condition 4 = learn when not on drug, recall not on drug.
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Carter and Cassaday (1998) state dependant forgetting: findings and conclusions
recall was significantly worse in conditions 2 and 3 (mismatched cues) compared with conditions 1 and 3 (matched cues)
when the cues at encoding are absent at retrieval e.g you are drowsy when recalling material but had been alert when you learned it, then there is more forgetting.
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one strength of retrieval failure explanation (real world application)
- retrieval cues have real world application
people often go to another room to get an item they wanted, buy forget what they waned, but they remember again when they go back to the original room
when we have trouble remembering something, it is probably worth making the effort to recall the environment in which you learned it first
this shows research can remind us of strategies we use in the area world to improve our recall.
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another strength of the retrieval failure explanation + CP: (supporting evidence / very diff contexts)
- the impressive range of supporting evidence
for example, Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassaday show that lack of cues at recall leads to everyday forgetting
in fact, memory researchers Eysenck and Keane argue that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting in LTM
this evidence shows that retrieval failure due to lack of cues occurs in everyday life as well as in highly controlled labs
CP: Baddeley argues that different contexts have to be very different indeed before an effects is seen ( land vs underwater). learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because the environments are not different enough
this means that retrieval failure due to lack of cues may not explain much everyday forgetting.
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one limitation of retrieval failure explanation (depends type)
- the context effects depend on the type of memory being tested e.g vary in recall and recognition
Godden and Baddeley replicated their underwater experiment using a recognition test instead of recall - pts had to say whether they recognised a word from the list
there was no context dependent effect. findings were the same in all four conditions whether the contexts for learning and recall matched or not
this suggests that retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting because it only applies when a person has to recall information rather than recognise it.
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Eyewitness testimony - Loftus and palmer (1974) leading questions: procedure
45 student pts watched film clips of car accidents and then answers questions about speed. critical question 'about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?'
five groups of pts, each given a different verb in the critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
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Eyewitness testimony - Loftus and palmer (1974) leading questions: findings
the verb 'contracted' produced a mean estimated speed of 31.8mph. for the verb 'smashed', the mean was 40.5mph
the leading question (verb) biased eyewitness recall of an event. the verb 'smashed' suggested a faster speed of the car than 'contacted'.
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why do leading questions affect EWT?
A response-bias explanation- wording of the question doesn't effect the memory of the eyewitness but influences how they decide to answer.
Substitution explanation- the wording of a leading question changes the participants memory. it interferes with the original memory, distorting its accuracy. This was demonstrated as by hearing the word 'smashed' they thought they saw broken glass..
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Gabbert et al (2003) post event discussion procedure:
gabbert studied pts in pairs. each pts watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view. this meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not
both pts discussed what they had seen on the video before individually completing a test of recall.
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Gabbert et al (2003) post event discussion: findings:
71% of pts wrongly recalled aspects of the event they did not see in the video but had heard in the discussion
control group - there was no discussion and no subsequent errors
this was evidence of memory conformity.
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why does post event information affect EWT?
memory contamination - when co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories
memory conformity - witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right. however their actual memory is unchanged.
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one strength of EWT, misleading information + CP (justice application / pessimistic)
-real world application in the criminal justice system
the consequences of inaccurate EWT are serious. Loftus (1975) argues police officers should be careful in phrasing questions to witnesses because of distorting effects
psychologists are sometimes expert witnesses in trials and explain limits of EWT to juries
therefore psychologists can improve how the legal system works and protect the innocent from faulty convictions based on unreliable EWT
CP: However, the practical applications of EWT may be affected by issues with research, Loftus and palmer showed film clips - a different experience from a real event. pts are also less concerned about the effect of their responses in a lab study
therefore researchers may be too pessimistic about the effects of misleading information - EWT may be more reliable than studies suggest.
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one limitation of EWT, misleading information (substitution evidence against)
- the substitution explanation is evidence challenging it
sutherland and Hayne found their pts recalled central details of an event better than peripheral ones, even when asked misleading questions
this is presumably because their attention was focused on the central features and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading information
therefore the original memory of the vent survived and was not distorted, which is not predicted by the substitution explanation.
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another limitation of EWT, misleading information (against memory conformity)
- the evidence does not support memory conformity
Skagerbeg and Wrights pts discussed the clips they had seen (in one version the mugger had dark brown hair and the other light brown)
the pts recalled a 'blend' of what they had heard from their co witness, rather than one or the other e.g said hair was 'medium brown'
this suggest that the memory itself is distorted through contamination by post event discussion and is not the result od memory conformity.
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EWT: Anxiety
Johnson and Scott (1976) Anxiety has a negative effect
- PROCEDURE
participants sat in a waiting room believing they were going to take part in a lab study
- low anxiety condition - pts heard a casual conversation and them saw a man walk through the waiting room carrying a pen with grease on his hands
- high anxiety condition - a heated argument was accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. a man then walked through the room holding a knife covered in blood (creates anxiety and 'weapon focus' (a witnesses attention is focused on the weapon as a result of anxiety, leaving less attention for other details of the event)
pts were later asked to pick the man from a set of 50 pictures.
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EWT: Anxiety
Johnson and Scott (1976) Anxiety has a negative effect
- findings and conclusions
49% of participants in the low anxiety condition and 33% of high anxiety participants were able to identify the man
the tunnel theory of memory explains weapon focus by suggesting that our attention narrows onto a weapon, the source of our anxiety..
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Yuille and Cutshall (1986) anxiety has a positive effect
- procedure
in an actual crime a gun shop owner shot a thief dead. there were 21 witnesses, 13 agreed to participate in the study
pts were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident. the information recalled was compared to the police interview at the time of the shooting
witnesses rated how stressed they felt at the time of the incident.
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Yuille and Cutshall (1986) anxiety has a positive effect
- findings and conclusions
witnesses were very accurate in what they called and there was little change after 5 months. some details were less accurate e.g age, weight, height
pts who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group)
anxiety does not appear to reduce the accuracy of EWT for a real world event and may even enhance it.
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explaining the contradictory findings of anxiety effects
inverted U theory = Yerkes and Dodson argue that the relationship between performance and arousal/stress is an inverted U - the theory states that performance will increase with stress, but only to a certain point, where it decreases drastically
affects memory = Deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies of EQT with contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety on recall
he suggested the yerkes Dodson effect could explain this - both low and high levels of anxiety produce poor recall whereas optimum levels can lead to very good recall.
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one limitation of EWT, anxiety (not relevant weapon)
- anxiety may not be relevant to weapon focus
Johnson and Scotts pts may have focused on the weapon not because they were anxious but because they were surprised
Picket (1998) found accuracy in identifying the 'criminal' was poorest when the object in their hand was unexpected e.g raw chicken and a gun in hairdressers (both unusual)
this suggests the weapon effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety and so tells us nothing about the specific effects of anxiety on recall.
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one strength of EWT, negative anxiety (london dungeons)
- supporting evidence for negative effects
Valentine et al used heart rate (objective measure) to divide visitors to the London dungeons Labyrinth into low and high anxiety groups
high anxiety pts were less accurate than low anxiety in describing and identifying a target person
this supports the claim that anxiety has a negative effect on immediate eyewitness recall of a stressful event.
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another strength of EWT, positive anxiety + CP (evidence from bank / long after event)
- supporting evidence for positive effects
Hubinette et al interviewed actual witnesses to bank robberies, some were direct witnesses (high anxiety) and others were bystanders (less anxiety)
they found more than 75% accurate recall across all witnesses. direct victims were even more accurate
this suggests that anxiety does not affect the accuracy of recall and may even enhance it
CP: hubinette et al interviewed witnesses long after the event. many things happened that the researchers could not control e.g post event discussions
therefore lack of control over confounding variables may be responsible for the (in)accuracy of recall, not anxiety.
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what is the cognitive interview?
Fisher and Geiselman (1992) claimed that EWT could be improved if the police use techniques based on psychological insight into how memory works
they called it the cognitive interview to indicate its foundation in cognitive psychology
rapport (understanding) is established with interviewee using 4 main techniques.
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report everything:
Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of an event, even if it seems irrelevant or the witness is not confident about it.
Seemingly trivial details could be important and may trigger other memories.
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reinstate the context:
The witness returns to the original crime scene 'in their mind' and imagine the environment (e.g. the weather, what they could see) and their emotions (e.g. what they felt).
This is based on the concept of context-dependent forgetting. Cues from the environment may trigger recall.
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reverse the order:
events are recalled in a different order e.g from the end back to the beginning
this prevents people basing their descriptions on their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events
it also prevents dishonesty (harder to produce an untruthful account if it has to be reversed).
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change perspective:
witnesses should recall incident from other peoples perspectives.
done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall. schema are packages of information developed through experience. they generate a framework for interpreting incoming information.
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the enhanced cognitive interview:
Fisher et al. developed some additional elements of the CI to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction e.g. the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it.
the enhances CI also includes ideas such as to reduce eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions.
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one strength of the cognitive interview + CP (support effectiveness)
- support for the effectiveness of the CI
a meta analysis by Kohnken et al (1999) combined data from 55 studies comparing CI (and ECI) with the standard police interview
the CI produced an average of 41% more correct information than the standard interview. only four studies showed no difference
this shows that CI is effective in helping witnesses recall information that is available but not accessible
CP: Kohnken et al also found increases in the amount of inaccurate information, especially in the ECI
therefore police officers need to be very careful about how they treat eyewitness evidence from CIs/ECIs.
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one limitation of the cognitive interview (some elements better)
- some elements of the CI are more useful than others
Milne and Bull (2002) found that each technique of the CI alone produced more information than the standard police interview
but they also found that combing report everything and reinstate the context produced better recall than any other technique individually or combined
this casts doubt on the credibility of the overall CI because some of the techniques are less effective than others.
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another limitation of the cognitive interview (time consuming)
- it is time consuming
police are reluctant to use the CI because it takes more time than the standard police interview e.g to establish rapport and allow the eyewitness to relax
the CI also requires social training buy many forces do not have the resources to provide more than a few hours of training
this suggests that the complete CI is not realistic for police officers to use and it might be better to focus on just a few key elements.
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what is social change
This occurs when whole societies, rather than individuals, adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways of doing things.
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what is the main driving force for social change
minority influence
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can social change be negative
yes - an example would be eugenic beliefs where certain races were seen as inferior.
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social change 1st step
Drawing attention to an issue - if we are exposed to a minorities views it draws out attention to it
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social change 2nd step
being consistent - arguments expressed consistently are taken more seriously and are more influential if they are.
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social change 3rd step
cognitive conflict - the majority feel and think more deeply about the issue, causing them to re-assess.
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social change 4th step
augmentations principle - if the minorities are willing to suffer for their cause their are taken more seriously
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social change 5th step
the snowball effect - the minority start with a small impact and it gets to a tipping point leading to widespread social change.
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what is social crypto amnesia
A phenomenon where societal change leads to an inability to recall what life was like before.
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What does Social Crypto Amnesia indicate about societal change?
It indicates that societal change has occurred to a point where people cannot remember previous conditions
