SOCIAL ORGANISATION Flashcards
(37 cards)
THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES
The Hawthorne Studies were a series of experiments conducted in the 1920s and 1930s at the Western Electric Company’s
Hawthorne Works in Chicago. The studies were initially intended to investigate the relationship between lighting and
productivity, but they soon became focused on the social factors that influence worker behaviour. The studies found that
workers were motivated not only by their individual characteristics, but also by their social relationships and the group dynamics
in the workplace. This led to the development of the human relations movement, which emphasized the importance of social
factors in work motivation and productivity. The Hawthorne Studies challenged the prevailing scientific management approach,
which viewed workers as interchangeable and replaceable parts of a production process. Instead, the studies demonstrated that
workers were complex individuals with unique needs and motivations, and that their behaviour was influenced by a wide range
of social and psychological factors
RATIONAL DESIGN CONUNDRUM
BENEFITS:
* Efficiency
* Productivity
* Management control
COSTS:
* Cost of employee satisfaction
* Dehumanizing jobs
* Employer/employee conflict
* The Hawthorne Studies claims to have solved this conundrum.
WHY DOES THE RESEARCH MATTER?
- Fundamentally different view of human nature
- Challenge assumptions of management
- Laid foundations for Human Relations, interest in groups and informal organization
- Renewed interest in leadership, motivation, change, and culture
- Therefore central to OB
Objectives - Increase efficiency
- Discover optimum conditions for workers
- Within rational paradigm
- Increase productivity
- Physical changes on worker productivity
Outcomes - Discovered Human Relations theory
- Worker as social being
- Human cooperative systems
- Informal organization
- Hawthorne Effect – Impact of observation on worker
TAYLORIST ASSUMPTIONS
Taylorist assumptions were based on four key factors that included physical conditions such as lighting and fatigue, self-interest
like pay, and the belief that groups were problematic.
* Physical conditions: Taylor believed that workers’ productivity was affected by their physical surroundings. He
experimented with changes in lighting and the layout of workspaces to see how it affected worker performance.
* Physical conditions: Fatigue was another physical factor that Taylor believed affected worker productivity. He thought
that workers should be given frequent breaks to rest and refresh themselves.
* Self-interest: Taylor believed that workers were motivated primarily by financial rewards. He proposed piece-rate pay
as a means of motivating workers to increase their productivity.
* Group = problem: Taylor believed that groups of workers were a problem because they created a sense of solidarity
that could undermine management’s control over the workplace. He believed that workers should be treated as
individuals rather than members of a group.
Overall, Taylor’s assumptions were based on the belief that workers were essentially lazy and needed to be closely monitored
and controlled to ensure their productivity
EXPERIMENTS
1
EXPERIMENT #1: ILLUMINATION STUDIES
➢ Goal: To test the link between lighting levels and output, to discover the optimum lighting.
➢ Experiment 1: Output bobbed up and down.
➢ Experiment 2: Included a control group and increased light - output levels continually rose.
➢ Experiment 3: Decreased lighting - output still rose even when the lighting was very low.
➢ Conclusion: Lighting was found to be a minor factor and more psychological than real. Assumption that fatigue is key
CHANGING PERSPECTIVE
- Assumptions: Physical conditions are vital.
- However, a change in atmosphere and mental attitude is more important.
- Psychological and social factors rather than merely social ones.
EXPERIMENTS 3 AND 4
- Lighting and fatigue not significant - next assumption was pay.
- Tried pay incentives - but it did not seem to be a factor.
- Instead, workers became a “special group”.
- Anxieties of job losses impacted output.
- Morale and supervisory relations were considered vital.
- Discovered the importance of the social side of the organization.
EXPERIMENT 5: INTERVIEW PROGRAM
- Goal: To understand employees’ attitude to work.
- Findings: Workers were fixated on home life.
- Discovered the importance of personal life and personalities.
EXPERIMENT 6: BANK WIRING ROOM EXPERIMENTS
- Goal: To understand why the workers in the bank wiring room were not increasing their output despite a pay incentive.
- Findings: Workers were restricting output, focus on one group.
- They gave nicknames to those who worked too hard.
GROUP NORMS
- You should not turn out too much work – or you are a rate-buster
- You should not turn out too little work – or you are a chisler
- You should not tell a supervisor anything that might get a colleague into trouble – or you are a squealer
- You should not attempt to maintain social distance or act officiously
MILLER AND FORM 1964
- Miller and Form (1964) conducted a study on the impact of informal groups on productivity.
- Their findings suggest that the output of workers is influenced by the informal group they belong to.
- The group standard is shaped by the group culture and has a greater impact on the behaviour of the workers than the
management’s expectations. - The study highlights the importance of considering the role of informal groups and culture in the workplace, as they can
significantly affect productivity and worker behaviour. - The study also raises questions about the effectiveness of traditional top-down management approaches and the need
for a more collaborative and participatory management style that takes into account the informal groups and culture
within the organization.
KEY DISCOVERY: THE SOCIAL BEING
- The key discovery of the Hawthorne Studies was the importance of the social being in the workplace.
- The primary social unit was found to be crucial in shaping norms, perceptions, and identity formation of employees.
- Social interaction in the workplace was essential for creating a sense of belonging and safety in numbers.
- Expansion:
- The Hawthorne Studies revealed that the social environment of the workplace was a significant factor in shaping
employee behaviour and motivation. - The studies found that employees were not just individual units of labor, but social beings who were influenced by their
interactions with others in the workplace. - The primary social unit was found to be a powerful determinant of behaviour, shaping norms, and identity formation.
- Employees sought safety in numbers, and the social environment of the workplace provided a sense of belonging and
community. - Management was found to have less impact on employee behaviour than the informal group norms and social
dynamics within the workplace. - The discovery of the social being challenged the Taylorism assumptions of the time, which focused on physical
conditions, self-interest, and the individual rather than the social group
POWER OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
- The informal organization refers to the social network of relationships that exists within a workplace, which is not
formally recognized in the organizational chart. This network of relationships often shapes the norms, attitudes, and
behaviours of workers. - The informal organization can have a powerful impact on worker productivity. This is because workers are social beings
who seek a sense of belonging and safety in numbers. As such, they tend to conform to the norms and standards of the
group. - Managers can change group norms by changing social relations. For example, they can try to break up cliques or
promote interactions between workers who do not normally interact. They can also influence the norms and values of
the group by setting an example through their own behaviour. - Social relations can be a resource for managers. By understanding the informal organization and the social relationships
within it, managers can better motivate workers, improve communication, and foster a positive workplace culture.
KEY FINDINGS
- Hawthorne studies highlighted that the business organization is more than just a collection of individuals performing
specific tasks; it is a social system with its own norms, values, and patterns of behaviour. - The studies showed that employees’ levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their work environment and conditions
directly impact their productivity and performance. - The studies also demonstrated that employees are not just machines; they are social beings with their own emotions,
motivations, and aspirations. - Employees want to be treated as individuals and given the opportunity to use their own initiative to contribute to the
success of the organization.
EMPLOYABILITY SKILL – THE IMPORTANCE OF SOFT SKILLS
- Employability skills refer to a set of skills that are necessary for being successful in the workplace.
- Soft skills are important in management because they help to create a positive working environment, foster teamwork,
and improve communication. - Soft skills include things like communication, teamwork, problem-solving, leadership, and adaptability.
- Getting people to work together can be challenging because people have different personalities, work styles, and
communication styles. - Managers need to be aware of the informal dynamics of the group, such as group norms and social interactions, to
effectively manage the group. - Soft skills are often overlooked in favor of technical skills, but they are just as important for success in the workplace.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RATIONAL AND HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
Table
ECONOMIC TO SOCIAL PERSON
- Labor as a cost of production: In the traditional economic model, labor is viewed as a cost of production, and the goal of
management is to minimize labor costs and maximize profits. In this view, workers are seen as interchangeable and
expendable. - Capital as the driving force: Capital is viewed as the driving force of the economy, and the goal of management is to
maximize returns on investment. Workers are seen as a means to this end, and their role is to produce goods and
services efficiently. - Shifting perspective: The traditional view of labor and capital is being challenged by a shift in perspective that
recognizes the importance of social factors in the workplace. The new view emphasizes that labor is an integral part of
the economy and society, and that workers have a stake in the success of the enterprise. - Increased emphasis on social factors: The new perspective has led to an increased emphasis on social factors in the
workplace, such as job satisfaction, employee engagement, and workplace culture. This has resulted in the
development of new management practices that focus on employee well-being, empowerment, and participation in
decision-making.
CLAIMS AND COUNTER-CLAIMS
The claims and counter-claims refer to the Hawthorne Studies, which were conducted to understand the relationship between
productivity and work conditions.
1. Claim 1 suggests that workers are naturally cooperative and form groups spontaneously, while counter-claim 1 argues
that the evidence was highly selective, and uncooperative workers were removed from the study.
2. Claim 2 suggests that workers are motivated by social rather than financial needs, while counter-claim 2 argues that
financial concerns, especially job security, were dismissed as irrational.
3. Claim 3 suggests that the findings can be replicated, while counter-claim 3 argues that the observation itself changes
behaviour and that the setting was not natural.
4. Claim 4 suggests that the studies discovered the social person, while counter-claim 4 argues that the studies
presupposed the social person.
5. Claim 5 suggests that the studies provided a progressive alternative to Taylorism, while counter-claim 5 argues that the
studies provided a more subtle form of control that assumes workers and managers have the same interests and
anyone with other views is irrational.
Overall, the Hawthorne Studies remain an important contribution to the understanding of the relationship between work
conditions and productivity, but they are not without controversy, and some of their claims have been criticized for being
selective or presupposing certain assumptions.
PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNING OF MAYO’S THEORY
- The philosophical underpinning of Mayo’s theory stems from the Industrial Revolution and the destruction of individual
significance. - Mayo saw the breakdown of family ties as a potential source of chaos and individual unhappiness.
- He believed that ultimately people were cooperative, and that the management’s role was to save Western civilization.
- Mayo reinforced the idea of an administrative elite and saw conflict as a psychological deficiency.
- He proposed using the group to secure cooperation.
- Expansion:
- Mayo’s theory was heavily influenced by his own political interpretation of workers’ motivation.
- He believed that management had an important role to play in securing cooperation and maintaining social order.
- Mayo’s approach can be seen as a form of control, as it relies on the use of groups to secure cooperation and reinforces
the role of management as an administrative elite. - Some critics have argued that Mayo’s theory represents a more subtle form of control, as it assumes that workers and
managers share the same interests and anyone with other views is seen as irrational. - Mayo’s theory also highlights the importance of social relationships and group dynamics in the workplace, which has
led to the development of various approaches to teamwork and collaboration.
STUDY SKILL – CRITICAL THINKING
- Critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information to form a well-reasoned judgment or
conclusion. - As learners, it is important to not only focus on the research findings but also to analyse the research assumptions that
underpin the research. - Some of the assumptions that can be investigated include the researcher’s theoretical perspectives, values, and beliefs.
- Investigating these assumptions can help learners to critically evaluate the research findings and interpret the research
findings more accurately.
ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES
ELTON MAYO’S INTERPRETATION
- Advocated a new and progressive form of management based on cooperation
- Believed that the administrative elite was necessary to secure cooperation
- Cooperation was empowering and essential for managing workers effectively
- Focused on the importance of the social organization within the workplace
- Sought to create a workplace environment that would empower workers and make them feel valued
DANIEL BELL’S INTERPRETATION
- Argued that the Hawthorne Studies were about adjusting people to machines
- Viewed the findings as evidence of a stronger form of control
- Advocated for alternative approaches to management that prioritize workers’ freedom and spontaneity
- Criticized Mayo for ignoring the importance of increasing worker autonomy
- Believed that there were more effective ways to manage workers that would lead to greater job satisfaction and
productivity
PROGRESSIVE TAYLORISTS INTERPRETATION
- Sought to reconcile the efficiency principles of Taylorism with workplace democratic principles
- Believed that the Hawthorne Studies provided evidence for a new form of management that prioritized worker
satisfaction and autonomy while maintaining efficiency - Advocated for the use of group dynamics and employee participation in decision-making to increase worker satisfaction
and productivity - Focused on creating a workplace environment that was both efficient and empowering for workers.
HAWTHORNE STUDIES SUMMED UP
The Hawthorne Studies is a significant piece of research in the field of management that offered a new perspective on
management and a more humane approach. It is one of the largest research ever conducted. However, some of the
interpretations are questionable as they are based on pre-existing assumptions, and it could be argued that it is a more subtle
form of control.
Positive:
➢ The research is significant and considered one of the largest research ever conducted in the field of management.
➢ It offered a new perspective on management and a more humane approach, shifting from the Taylorist approach.
But …
➢ The interpretations of the research could be questionable as they were based on pre-existing assumptions of the
researchers, which could have influenced the results.
➢ The studies could also be seen as a more subtle form of control that reinforces management’s role and secures
cooperation.
➢ The studies also ignored some of the alternatives that could have increased workers’ freedom and spontaneity.
