Social Psychology Revision

Question 1

What is Social Psychology?

Answer 1

• Social psychology examines how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual or implied presence of others.
• Social psychology is ‘the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual or implied presence of others’ (Allport, 1935).
• Social psychology links an individual’s affective states (feelings and emotions), behaviour (the way they act), and their cognition (their thought processes), to their social world.

Question 2

Why is it important to study social psychology/social isolation?

Answer 2

Social isolation leads to psychological and health problems.

Adverse impact on health and well-being that is comparable to damaging health factors such as obesity, smoking, and high blood pressure (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1992).

Question 3

What was Schachter’s study and what did it reveal about social isolation?

Answer 3

Study: Schachter isolated five volunteers in a windowless room for as long as they could endure.

FOUND:
Considerable individual differences in the amount of time people could tolerate isolation

One lasted 2 hours (“almost hammering the door to get out”)
Three participants lasted two days (two were unaffected by the experience, one was uneasy)
The fifth participant lasted 8 days without suffering from adverse reactions

Question 4

How does social psychology differ from common sense?

Answer 4

The use of scientific methods to test theories separates social psychology from common sense.

Question 5

What are Descriptive (Non-experimental) Research Methods?

Answer 5

Descriptive (Non-experimental) Methods: attempts to measure and/or record thoughts, feelings and behaviours in their natural state.

Question 6

What are the three main Descriptive (Non-experimental) Research Methods?

Name examples of studies for each method.

Answer 6

1. Naturalistic Observation: observing behaviour as it unfolds in a natural setting

Example:
Barner-Barry (1986):
• Example of Naturalistic Observation
• Observed how young children interact with a bully

2. Archival Studies: examining archives or public records of social behaviour

Example:
Gordon, Musher-Eizenmann, Holub, Dalrymple (2004):
• Example of Archival Research
• Examined what children are thankful for pre- & post Sept 11th by looking at archived essay contest entries.
FOUND: Children were more grateful for US values (freedom) and rescue workers after Sept 11.

3. Surveys: asking people questions about their beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

Example:
Faulkner, Williams, Sherman, & Williams (1997):
• Example of Surveys
• Surveyed how often people give and receive the “silent treatment”
FOUND: 67% admitted to using it
, 75% indicated that they have received it.

Question 7

Why are descriptive (non-experimental) research methods useful?

Answer 7

• The Descriptive (non-experimental) methods are useful in determining the association between variables (i.e., correlation).
• Correlation—the extent to which two or more variables are associated with one another.
• Positive correlation: Y increases as X increases, Y decreases as X decreases-The more you eat, the fuller you’ll be.
• Negative correlation: Y decreases as X increases-The more bleach you drink, the lower your life expectancy.

Question 8

What is the limitation of descriptive (non-experimental) research methods?

Answer 8

• Can show correlation between two variables but cannot determine causality-it cannot demonstrate that Variable A causes Variable B or vice versa.

Question 9

What are Experimental Research Methods?

Answer 9

Experimental Research Methods: attempt to manipulate social processes by varying and controlling some aspect of the situation.

Question 10

What are the two main Experimental Research Methods?

Answer 10

1. Field experiments: involve the manipulation of variables using unknowing participants in natural settings.
   Example:
   • Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz (1969) examined the influence of a crowd—would passers-by copy a crowd of 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, or 15 people?
   • FOUND: Only 4% copied a single person, 40% copied 15 people
2. Laboratory experiments: involve the direct manipulation of variables and the observation of their effects on the behaviour of other variables.

Question 11

What is Social Influence?

Answer 11

Social influence: the process whereby people directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of others. Social influence is powerful in changing the way individuals behave in social situations.

Question 12

What is Social Facilitation?

Answer 12

Social Facilitation: is a social phenomenon that suggests the presence of others improves performance.

Question 13

Who was the first to study Social Facilitation and what did they observe?

Answer 13

• Triplett (1898) conducted the first empirical social psychology experiments (used scientific methods to explore a social phenomenon)
• Observation: cyclists recorded faster times when racing against others than when they were cycling by themselves→Presence of others improves performance.

Question 14

What is the Dynamogenic Factor Theory?

Answer 14

The Dynamogenic Factor Theory:

•Suggests that the presence of another person is a stimulus to arousing the competitive instinct→ this then releases nervous energy that is not released when the person is alone→Further, the sight of movement in the other person (if they’re performing better, faster) is also an inspiration to greater effort.

Question 15

What did the Dynamogenic Factor Theory become known as?

Answer 15

Dynamogenic factor theory→became known as social facilitation: the presence of others improves performance.

Question 16

What are the two types of social facilitation studies?

Answer 16

Two types of social facilitation studies:

1. Co-action effects: observe behaviour when individuals are all simultaneously engaged in the same activity in full view of each other.
2. Audience effect: observation of behaviour when it occurs in the presence of passive spectators.

Question 17

What is Social Interference/Social Inhibition?

Whose findings support this phenomenon?

Answer 17

Social Interference: is when the presence of other people hinders performance.

Pessin’s (1937) findings support the theory of Social Interference/Social Inhibition.

Question 18

What is the Mere Presence Theory?

Who suggested the Mere Presence Theory?

Answer 18

Mere Presence Theory (Zajonc, 1965): The presence of other people, as spectators or co-actors, leads to arousal (activation or drive).

This arousal→has different effects on performance (it either improves or hinders performance)

1. If the task/behaviour is easy or well learned→arousal improves performance
2. If the task/behaviour is hard or not well learned→arousal hinders performance

Question 19

In the Mere Presence Theory, how does the presence of others affect an individual’s performance?

Answer 19

1. If the task/behaviour is easy or well learned→arousal improves performance
2. If the task/behaviour is hard or not well learned→arousal hinders performance

→Arousal facilitates the performance of the dominant response.

→Arousal inhibits the performance of the non-dominant response.

Question 20

Which study supports the Mere Presence Theory?

Answer 20

Zajonc, Heingartner, &Herman (1969)’s study supports the Mere Presence Theory.

Question 21

What did Zajon, Heingartner, &Herman (1969) do in their study?

What did they find as a result?

Answer 21

Study: Tested whether cockroaches would perform faster in the mere presence of others (as compared to alone) when performing a well-learned task (dominant response) and when performing a complex task (non-dominant response).

Found: Cockroaches in the mere presence (audience condition) performed the maze faster than those in the alone condition.

→Arousal facilitates the dominant response.

Found: Cockroaches in the mere presence (audience condition) were slower to perform a complex maze than those in the alone condition.

→Arousal inhibits the performance of the non-dominant response.

Question 22

What is the Distraction-Conflict Theory?

Answer 22

Distraction-Conflict Theory (Baron, Moore, &Sander, 1978): The presence of others is arousing because it causes conflict between two basic tendencies:

1. whether to pay attention to the presence of others OR
2. whether to concentrate on the task at hand

→This conflict results in increased arousal, which either facilitates or inhibits our performance.

Question 23

Which study supports the Distraction-Conflict Theory?

Answer 23

Sanders & Baron (1975) ‘s study supports the Distraction-Conflict Theory.

Question 24

What did Sanders & Baron (1975) do in their study?

What were the findings of this study?

Answer 24

Study: Participants asked to do either a simple or complex copying task. Two conditions: distraction or non-distraction.

Found:
→In the simple task, distraction facilitated performance (performed task better when distracted).

→In the complex task, distraction impaired performance (performed task worse when distracted).

Supports the distraction-conflict theory (we are “driven by distraction”).

Question 25

What is the Evaluation-Apprehension Theory?

Answer 25

Evaluation-Apprehension Theory (Cottrell): Our performance is affected not just by the mere presence of others but when others are evaluating our performance.

Question 26

Which study supports the Evaluation-Apprehension Theory? What were the findings of this study?

Answer 26

Cottrell, Wack, Sekerak, & Rittle (1968)'s study supports this theory. Study: Asked participants to memorize a list of nonsense words. Manipulated who watched the participants: 1. Alone condition 2. Audience condition 3. Mere presence condition Found: Social facilitation was most apparent in the audience condition→supports the Evaluation-Apprehension Theory.

Question 27

What is another study that supports the Evaluation-Apprehension Theory? What were the findings of this study?

Answer 27

Worringham & Messick (1983)'s study also supports this theory. Study: Joggers jogged in three different conditions: 1. Evaluation condition: confederate watched them jog 2. Mere presence condition: confederate looked away from the jogger 3. Alone condition: jogged without confederate Found: Joggers ran faster when the confederate was watching→supports the Evaluation-Apprehension Theory

Question 28

What is social loafing?

Answer 28

Social Loafing →Social loafing is the reduction in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively compared with when they work individually.

Question 29

When does social loafing occur?

Answer 29

→Social loafing occurs in a group situation where the performance of the individual cannot be differentiated or evaluated.

Question 30

Why does social loafing occur? What are the three main reasons?

Answer 30

1. Evaluation Potential: in a group your individual input cannot be evaluated, thus you can: a. Hide in the crowd and reduce your effort as you cannot be blamed b. Feel lost in the crowd and be inclined to perform below average, as you will not receive your fair share of credit. 2. Dispensability of Effort: Individuals feel their input is not essential to a high quality group product. 3. Matching of Effort: individuals expect group members to slack off so they match their effort to group members.

Question 31

What is Conformity?

Answer 31

Conformity: is when we adhere to, or adjust, our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviours to be consistent with the standards of a group of society.

Question 32

Why do we conform? What are the two main reasons?

Answer 32

1. Informational social influence: influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality (because they believe others are correct in their judgments). 2. Normative social influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Question 33

In the case of Kitty Genovese, why didn't anyone help?

Answer 33

Latane & Darley suggested it was due to the Bystander Effect: →Inaction of witnesses was due to the situation (presence of others) rather than personality traits →Witnesses believed others would take responsibility and report the case

Question 34

What is the Bystander Effect? What happens in the Bystander Effect?

Answer 34

The Bystander Effect: where the presence of others inhibits helping. In the Bystander Effect→As the number of peopled involved increases, individual responsibility decreases and help becomes less likely.

Question 35

What was Darley and Latane's (1968) study about? What did they find?

Answer 35

Theory: Bystander Effect Study: Participants talked about campus life over an intercom. They thought they were talking to: 1. one other person 2. up to four other people Then one of the participants had a seizure. Found: In this situation, when the person was alone, 90% would quickly go to help. But when they thought there was up to four other people, the fewer help and the longer it takes to help.

Question 36

How does Darley and Latane's (1968) study support the Bystander Effect theory?

Answer 36

Thus Darley & Latane’s (1968) study supports the Bystander Effect→when the number of bystanders increase, the probability that any bystander will help decreases, and the time taken to help increases.

Question 37

What is Pluralistic Ignorance?

Answer 37

Pluralistic ignorance: If people monitor the reactions of other bystanders, they may conclude from their inaction that they don’t need to intervene→Thus no one helps, even though some believe they should do something.

Question 38

What is Deindividuation?

Answer 38

Deindividuation: is when group participation makes people feel aroused and anonymous and leads to the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behaviour.

Question 39

Why does deindividuation occur, according to Zimbardo (1959)?

Answer 39

Zimbardo (1959) believed deindividuation occurred due to: -Anonymity - Arousal - And diffusion of responsibility

Question 40

What did Zimbardo et al. (1959)'s study involve? What did his field experiment look at? What were the key findings?

Answer 40

Zimbardo (1959)'s field experiment looked at vandalism and anonymity. Theory: Believed Deindividuation occurred due to anonymity, arousal, and diffusion of responsibility. Field Experiment: Parked these two cars in two locations: 1. Across the street from the Bronx Campus of New York University (big city=anonymous) 2. Near the Stanford University Campus (small town=not very anonymous) Found: Car in New York: vandalized by many people. Car in Stanford: car was untouched.

Question 41

What did Zimbardo (1969)'s study regarding deindividuation involve? What did Zimbardo predict would happen?

Answer 41

Theory: Anonymity causes Deindividuation Study: Will people who feel anonymous and unaccountable give more electric shocks? The study involved: * Anonymous and non-anonymous participant * Two victims, one nasty, one nice * All were tested in a group (shared responsibility) Predictions: →Number of shocks and duration: Deindividuated participants would be more aggressive and give more shocks of greater duration than those who were identifiable. →Shocking the victims: Identifiable participants should shock the nasty victim more and the nice victim less; the deindividuated participant should shock everyone regardless of personality.

Question 42

What were Zimbardo's (1969) findings in relation to anonymity and deindividuation?

Answer 42

Found: →Number of shocks: no difference between identified and deindividuated participants →Duration of shocks: Deindividuated participants = .90 sec Identified participants = .47 sec →There was a greater increase in shock duration over trials for deindividuated participants →The identity of the victim: For deindividuated participants, it didn’t matter if the victim was nasty or nice. Thus, although both groups shocked participants, deindividuated participants shocked twice as much as identified participants.

Question 43

What did Gergern, Gergen, & Barton (1973)'s study involve? What did it reveal about anonymity and deindividuation?

Answer 43

Theory: Anonymity leads to Deindividuation and lowering of inhibitions BUT not always to violent or deviant behaviour but can lead to intimacy and compassion. Study: * Placed participants in a room with 6 to 8 other people for an hour * Room was either completely dark or brightly lit * Participants in the dark were told they would be completely anonymous Found: In the dark, participants quickly developed a sense of intimacy and discussed important and personal matters. People in the dark felt “free” yet “serious”. Follow-up study: Told participants they would be meeting up after sitting in the dark. This took away their anonymity. Found: Participants were less likely to explore the chamber, more likely to feel bored, less likely to introduce themselves, less likely to hug, less likely to feel close to each other and more likely to panic. KEY: Revealed that anonymity can lead to Deindividuation and a lowering of inhibitions BUT not always resulting in violent or deviant behaviour but can lead to intimacy and compassion.