Social Psychology Yr2 Sem2 Flashcards
How can we define social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Interested in how people think about and perceive themselves in their social world.
The interpersonal exchanges between people and how they influence one another in a group setting.
What are the four concepts that social psychology covers?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Social thinking - The self, social beliefs and judgments, attitudes and behaviors.
Social influence - Persuasion, conformity, and obedience
Social relations - Aggression, attraction, and intimacy, helping
Groups and identities - Small group processes, social categorization, social identity, prejudice, intergroup relations and conflict
Who wrote and when - Treatise on human nature?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
David Hume, 1739
What did David Hume contribute to social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
He believed sympathy contributed to social conformity and is the basis of our attachment to society.
What did the German Psychologist Immanuel Kant contribute to social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
With topics such as
- knowledge
- the self
- how people manipulate each other
- the inclination of power
Believed the study of humans should involve the whole mind
- His holistic view informed Gestalt Psychology
What is the definition of Gestalt psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Holistic theory of the mind and brain and how this structures our perception
- originating in Germany
What is the order of psychologists who contributed to social psychology (include dates if possible and brief description)
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
- David Hume: 1711 - 1776 (sympathy)
- Adam Smith: 1723 - 1790 (the self)
- Immanuel Kant: 1724 - 1804 (Gestalt psychology)
- Johann Fredrick Herbart: 1776 - 1841 (mass psychology - social aspects of the self)
- Auguste Comte: 1798 - 1857 (methods in natural science can be used in social science, positivism)
- Wilhelm Wundt: 1832 - 1920 (use of labs to study mental processes - 1879 established)
- Gustave Le Bon: 1842 - 1931 (psychology of the crowd, intergroup relations, and aggression)
- William James: 1842-1910 (Founding father of American psychology - social psych becomes its own discipline)
- Emile Durkheim: 1858 - 1917 (distinguish between collective and individual thought, social representations theory)
- George Herbert Mead: 1863 - 1931 (modern theorizing on lang and communication)
- Edward Alsworth Ross: 1866 - 1951 (Produced American textbook - social psychology (1908))
- William McDougall: 1871 - 1938 (wrote An introduction to social psychology in 1908)
- Kurt Lewin: 1890 - 1947 (gestalt psychologist)
- Floyd Allport: 1890 - 1967 (wrote social psychology textbook in 1924 about individual processes in understanding human behavior
- Gordon Allport: 1897 - 1967 (Focuses on the role of personality traits to understand social psychological topics such as prejudice)
What does Volkerpsycholigie mean?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Sometimes known as mass psychology
- people who belong to the same social group tend to think in the same way, holding collective beliefs, norms, and values.
Established in 1879
What is positivism?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Comte - Approach states that true knowledge can only be achieved through sense perception and empirical investigation.
What is Norman Triplett’s (1898) experiment?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Supposedly the first social psychology experiment.
Observed that cyclists rode their bikes quicker when racing someone when they did racing against the clock.
Therefore, he asked girls and boys age 8 - 17 to wind in fishing rods as fast as they could.
In one condition they raced against each other and in the other, they did it alone.
When competing, they were much faster
What do the levels of explanation mean?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Human behaviour can be understood on different levels: personal, interpersonal, group and ideological
What were Henri Tajfel and Serge Moscovici responsible for in social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Moving the direction of social psychology from just the focus on individuals to looking at the more social aspects.
What is the crisis in social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
In the early days of social psychology, it was much too focused on individuals rather than the effects of groups and the effect that individuals have on each other.
What is critical social psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Recognises political, social, and historical situatedness to pursue social change and reform.
It embraces the influence of social constructionism, discursive psychology, and phenomenological psychology.
Also embraces qualitative research methods
What is social constructionism?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
This is an approach to how our sense of reality is formed - it argues that all cognitive functions originate in social interaction and must be therefore explained as products of social interactions
What is discursive psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
How language and discourse construct social action.
What is phenomenological psychology?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Argues that subjective conscious experience and a sense of being in the world are fundamental to understanding human social behaviour.
What is the debate between Taylor and Kuhn about?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Taylor argues that because social psychology relies on human social beings studying other humans - it CANT produce objective knowledge.
Kuhn proposes that all science involves human scientists, so if it is the case in social psychology, natural sciences would not be objective either because there is always human interpretation.
True or false? Does social psychology reflect contemporary society (changes with the times)?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
True
What is the definition of culture?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Behaviours, ideas, attitudes, and traditions are shared by a large group of people and transmitted between generations.
What are social representations?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural identities that help us make sense of the world.
What is an example of hidden values within language?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Brainwashing is a social influence we do not approve of.
Perversion is acts of sex we do not practice.
What is behaviourism?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Psychology is a study of observation because thoughts, feelings, and motives cannot be tested. Behvaiourism is based on reinforcement with positive and negative outcomes.
Who said and when - that people are above all, malleable?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Hazel Markus (2005)
What decade was classed as the decade of the brain?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
The 1990s
What is social neuroscience?
(Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)
Understanding how the brain influences behaviour
Where are mirror neurons and what do they do?
- Mirror neurons are in the premotor cortex
- Active when watching someone perform an action
When did the idea of self become individualized?
From the 16th century onwards
What is the ID, ego, and superego according to Sigmund Freud?
Id - Unconscious containing all the urges and impulses (libido) and only responds to the pleasure principle
Ego - Modified by the influence of the external world: Ego is what is in control and what the id and superego go through
Superego - Values and morals which are learned from parents and others (Develops between 3&5 - the phallic stage). Voice of doing what’s right. Controls the Id’s impulses: has the conscience which is our inner voice and it may punish the ego with feelings of guilt. It contains our ideal self
What is Wilhelm Wundt’s idea of the collective self?
Defined by the groups you’re in for example, British, female, lesbian etc.
When does self-awareness develop?
At 18 months
What part of the brain is involved in self-awareness?
The anterior cingulate gyrus
In schema theory - what are schematic and aschematic attributes?
Schematic attribute - Give information about a schematic feature or schematic diagram
Aschematic attribute - Doesn’t fit in with a schema
What is self-discrepancy theory? (Higgins, 1987)
Three types of self schema:
Actual self
Ideal self
Ought self
Our goal motivated to reduce discrepancies between the actual-ideal (dejection), and actual-ought (agitation) schemas.
We engage in self-regulation in order to motivate change.
What does secularisation mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The idea that fulfillment occurs in the afterlife was replaced by the idea that you should actively peruse personal fulfillment in this life.
What does secularisation mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People were increasingly seen as units of production that moved from place to place to work and had a portable personal identity that was not locked into static social structures such as the extended family.
What does enlightenment mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People felt that they could organise and construct different, better, identities and lives for themselves by overthrowing orthodox value systems and oppressive regimes
(french and american revolutions)
What does psychoanalysis mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Freud’s theory of the human mind crystallised the notion that the self was unfathomable because it was in the depths of the unconscious.
- people possess unconscious thoughts and feelings
Discuss the psychodynamic self? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Freud believed unsocialised and libidinal impulses (the id) are repressed and kept in check by internalised societal norms (the superego)
Discuss the collective self. (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Wundt’s social psychology dealt with collectives such as language, religion , customs and myth which Wundt believed could not be understood in terms of the individual self. Emile Durkheim (1898) also maintained a collective perspective on the self. William Mcdougall in ‘The Group Mind’ argued that interactions of individuals arises a group mind.
Since the late 80’s there has been a revival of interest in the collective self.
What does symbolic interactionism mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The theory of how the self emerges from human interaction (language and gesture)
What is the symbolic interactionist self? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The self emerges and is shaped by social interaction.
William James (1890) distinguished between the self as stream of consciousness (‘I’) and as object of perception (‘me’).
What is the looking glass self? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The self derived from seeing ourselves as others see us.
What is the looking glass study by Shrauger and Schoeneman (1979)? - (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
They reviewed 62 students, results showed that they didn’t view themselves as other viewed them but viewed themselves how they thought others viewed them.
What is the self-enhancing triad by Sedikides and Gregg (2007)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People normally overestimate their good points, their control over events and are unrealistically optimistic.
What were the two types of self that you can be aware of according to Scheier (1981) - (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The private self - your private thoughts, feelings and attitudes
The public self - how other people see you, your public image
Private self awareness makes you want to match your behaviour to your internalised standards - public is about presenting yourself in a positive light outwards.
What is reduced self-awareness known as? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Deindividuation - Being too self-aware can be stressful so people may avoid it by engaging in antisocial behaviours such as drinking excessive alcohol or suicide.
How do we store information about the self? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
We use self-schemas which are stored in more complex ways in context specific nodes
What parts of the brain are responsible for the self? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
There is no particular part however, experience of self emerges from brain activity across the medial prefrontal and the medial precuneus cortex.
Why is it generally considered less preferable to compartmentalise self-schemas? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Because it can cause extreme mood-swings if someone believes the are outstanding at one thing and awful at another things.
Who believes that we have an array of possible selves? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Markus and Nurius (1986)
For example, future selves of what we would like to become and what we fear to become
What is Higgins (1987) self-discrepancy theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Consequences of making comparisons between actual-ideal and actual-ought self showing self-discrepancies.
Self-discrepancies make emotionally vulnerable as when we fail to resolve an ideal-actual discrepancy, it leaves us feeling dejected and when we fail to solve and actual-ought discrepancy, we feel agitated.
What’s the definition of self regulation? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Strategies we use to match our behaviour to an ideal or ought standard.
What is regulatory focus theory? Higgins 1997,1998 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
The proposal that people have two separate self-regulatory systems - promotion and prevention which are concerned with the different pursuit of goals.
Promotion system - attainment of one’s hopes and aspirations (ones ideals). Generates sensitivity to the presence/absence of positive events. Approach strategic means to achieve their goals. e.g. promotion-focused students would look for ways to improve their grades.
Prevention system - Fulfilment of one’s duties and obligations (ones oughts). Generates sensitivity to presence or absence of negative events. Avoidance strategic means to attain their goals. e.g. prevention-focused students would avoid new situations or new people and concentrate on avoiding failure.
When does the prevention/promotion approach set in? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Normally arises in childhood.
Promotion is normally within children who are hugged and kissed a lot for behaving in a desired manner and love is withdrawn as punishment.
Prevention can arise in children who are encouraged to be alert to potential dangers and punished and shouted at when behaving undesirably.
What is Bond et al.,1986 study about the self-discrepancy theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
They measured self-discrepancy by comparing attributes of the actual self with either the ideal or the ought self.
Students answered questionnaires and the researchers identified students who were high in both discrepancies or low in both.
After several week, students participated in an experiment in which emotions that reflected agitations or dejection were measured before and after the priming procedure.
For the ideal , they were asked to discuss their and their parents hopes for them.
For the ought, they discussed theirs and their parents duties and obligations for them.
Identified that an actual-ideal discrepancy would lead to feelings of dejection.
What is Daryl Bems self perception theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
We make attributions for our own behaviour and there is no difference between self-attributions and others-attributions
What is the over-justification effect?
Deci & Ryan, 1985 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
When someone is rewarded for their performance, it can lead to lower interest in the activity. It occurs when the introduction of an extrinsic reward weakens the strong intrinsic motivation that was the key to the person’s original high performance.
What is the social-comparison theory? Festinger (1954) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Comparing our opinions and behaviours with others in order to establish the socially correct way of thinking and behaving.
When it comes to performance we compare with people who are worse than us to give us a positive self concept (Wills, 1981)
What is Abraham Tesser’s, 1988 - self-evaluation maintenance model. (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Deal with social-comparison by downplaying our similarity with the person or withdraw the relationship with that person.
What is BIRGing? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Stands for ‘Basking In Reflected Glory’. This is when people or groups name-drop to link themselves with desirable people to create a better impression of themselves.
What are the two types of self and identity - Tajfel & Turner, 1986 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Social Identity - Defines self in terms of group memberships, collective self.
Personal Identity - Defines self in terms of idiosyncratic traits and close and personal relationships.
What are the three forms of self described by Brewer and Gardner (1996) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Individual self - Based on personal traits that differentiates the self from others.
Relational self - Based on connection and role relationships with significant others.
Collective self - Based on group membership that differentiates ‘us’ from ‘them’.
Recently, Brewer and Gardner’s 3 versions of self were extended to 4, what was the fourth one? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Group-based social identities which is defining oneself as part of a group membership.
What is self-conceptual coherence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Provides us with almost an autobiography that weaves our various identities and selves together into a whole person.
What is the actor-observer effect - Jones & Nisbett, 1972 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Tendency to attribute our own behaviour externally and others behaviours internally.
What is social identity theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparison and a construction of a shared self-definition in terms of in-group defining properties.
What is self-categorisation theory - Turner et al., 1987 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
How the process of categorising oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviours.
What is prototype? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Cognitive representation of the typical defining features of a category.
What is the meta-contrast principle? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Category prototypes accentuate the differences and similarities between groups.
What is a consequence of social-identity salience? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People’s perceptions of themselves and others become depersonalised.
What are the three classes of self-motives? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Self-assessment motivates pursuit of valid information about self. (Trope., 1986)
Self-verification seeks information that is consistent with our own self-image. (Swann., 1987)
Self enhancement motivates pursuit of information that makes us look good. (Kunda., 1990)
What is self-affirmation theory? (Sherman & Cohen, 2006; Steele, 1988) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People reduce the threat to their self-concept by focussing non and affirming their competence in some other area.
What is self-handicapping? - Berglas., 1987 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Publicly stating that something may be holding you back for anticipated failure e.g. saying you’re hungover before an exam.
What is terror-management theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Theory that the most fundamental human motivation is to reduce the terror of the inevitability of death. Self-esteem takes away from that fear because it distract people to feel positive about life and immortal.
What is impression management? - Leary, 1995 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
People play different roles depending on who they are around to impress them.
What is self-monitoring? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Carefully controlling how we present ourselves
What are the two classes of self-monitoring? Mark Snyder, 1974 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Strategic self-monitoring: High self-monitors use strategic because they shape their behaviour to project the impression that feel their audience or situations demands.
Expressive self-monitoring: Low self-monitors adapt this way because their behaviour is less responsive to changing contextual demands.
What are the five strategic self motives - Jones, 1964; Jones & Pittman, 1982. (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Self promotion - Trying to persuade others that you are competent.
Ingratiation - Trying to get others to like you.
Intimidation - Trying to get others to think that you are dangerous.
Exemplification - Trying to get others to regard you as a morally respectable individual.
Supplication - Trying to get others to take pity on you as helpless and needy.
What is self-presentation? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
An effort to act in a particular way which gives a desirable impression of ourselves.
What places are individualistic and which are collectivist. (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 4, key reading 2)
Western Europe, North America, Australasia = individualistic.
Southern Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa = collectivist.
What is attitude? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
An organisation of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols.
What did McGuire (1986) identify three main phases separated by periods of wanting interest were? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
1920s - 1930s: Concentration on attitude measurement and how these measurements related to behaviour.
1960s-1960s: Focus on the dynamics of change in a person’s attitudes.
1980s-1990s: Focus on the cognitive and social structure and function of attitudes and attitude systems.
Where is the attitude derived from? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
The latin aptus which means ‘fit and ready for action’.
What is the early one-component attitude model? - Thurstone, 1931 & Edwards 1957 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Thurstone (1931): Defined attitude as the affect for or against psychological object. Edwards (1957): the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological object/ An attitude consists of affect towards or evaluation of the object
What is the two-component attitude model? -Allport, 1935 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Elaborated on Thurstone’s affect for or against psychological object saying an attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It is a predisposition which has a relatively consistent influence on how we decide what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. INTROSPECTIVE
What is the three-component attitude model and when was it popular? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
An attitude consists of cognitive, affective and behaviour components.
It has an ancient philosophy including thought, feeling, and action as basics for human experience. Popular in the 1960s (Krech, Cruthfield and Ballachey, 1962; Rosenberg and Hovland, 1960; Himmelfarb and Eagly, 1974; Ostrom, 1968; Breckler, 1984)
What did the three-component attitude model emphasise that attitudes are? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Relatively permanent: persist across time and situations
Limited to SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT events or objects
Generalisable
What does Katz (1960) propose the purposes of attitudes are? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Various kinds of attitude each serving a different function
- Knowledge
- Instrumentally (means to an end or goal)
- Ego defence (protecting one’s self esteem)
- Value expressiveness (Allowing people to display those values that uniquely identify and define them)
What does Smith, Burner and White, 1956 propose attitude is a purpose for? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Attitude saves cognitive energy as we don’t have to figure out from scratch how we should relate to the object or situation.
What does Russell Fazio (1989) argue the function of an attitude is? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
The main function is a utilitarian one: that of object appraisal.
What are cognitive consistency theories? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
In the late 1950s and 1960s they dominated social psychology and are a group of attitude theories that emphasise that people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions. Argues that people are motivated to change contradictory beliefs so that the belief system is in harmony.
What is Cognitive dissonance theory? - Festinger, 1957/Cooper 2007 (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. People tend to seek consistency in their attitudes and perceptions, so this conflict causes unpleasant feelings of unease or discomfort.
What is Fritz Heider’s balance theory (1964)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Focuses on the P-O-X unit of cognitive field.
P - Person
O - Other person
X - Object, attitude, topic
It is balanced when there are no negative relations or equal negative relations.
E.g. 3 positive, 2 negative & positive
If unbalanced, people may feel tense and be motivated to restore the balance.
What is the sociocognitive model? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Sociocognitive model defines an attitude as ‘a person’s evaluation of an object of thought’.
What is an attitude object represented in memory by in the sociocognitive model? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
-An object label
- rules of applying that label
-An evaluation summary of object
-Knowledge structure supporting evaulation
What is information integration theory (Anderson, 1971; 1981)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A person’s attitudes can be estimated by averaging across the positive and negative ratings of the object.
What did Patricia Devine (1989) suggest? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Suggested that people’s attitudes are underpinned by implicit and automatic judgements of which they are unaware.
Less influenced by social desirability bias (how others react)
Therefore, Schwarz (2000) suggested that it is a more reliable measure of a person’s true attitudes.
What did Van der Pligt and de Vries (2000) in response to developments in attitude theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Proposed a decision making strategy continuum; ranges from intuition to controlled information processing at the other end.
What are the three main argued characteristics of attitude today? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Allport - directive and organised state of readiness
Anderson - outcome of algebraic calculation
Devine - automatic judgement
Who said attitudes predict behaviour? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Crano and Prislin (2006)
What did Gregson and Stacey (1981) find with attitude and alcohol? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A small correlation between people’s attitudes and reported alcohol consumption.
What is Richard LaPiere’s (1934) study? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
To understand the difference between prejudiced attitudes towards Chinese in general and discriminatory behaviours towards Chinese people. So went sightseeing with a Chinese couple visiting 66 hotels, caravan parks and were served in 184 restaurants and denied service once. 6 months after the trip, he sent out a questionnaire asking if they would accept Chinese people and 92% said no even though they previously accepted them in.
What did Wicker (1969) conclude the correlation was between attitudes and behaviour? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
0.30 - or squared = 9% of the variability in behaviour is accounted for by attitude.
What did Wicker find the AVERAGE correlation between behaviour and attitude to be? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
0.15
What causes attitude-behaviour consistency to vary? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3) GAP
- How accessible an attitude is
- Whether an attitude is expressed publicly
- How strongly someone identifies with a group for which the attitude is normative
Who also agrees with Thurstone (1931) that attitude is affect? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Martin FIshbein
What is ‘multiple-act criterion (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Term for a general behaviour index based in an average or combination of several specific behaviours.
Do general behaviours predict multiple behaviours or specific single behaviours better? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Multiple behaviours
What is the ‘theory of reasoned action?’ (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1974)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Theory of relationship between attitudes and behaviour. A specific attitude that has normative support predicts an intention to act.
It is mainly used to predict how individuals will behave based on their pre-existing attitudes and behavioral intentions.
What are the components included in theory of reasoned action? (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1974) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
- Subjective norm; A product of what the person thinks others believe
- Attitudes towards the behaviour; A product of the person’s beliefs about the target behaviour and how these beliefs are evaluated
- Behavioural intention; An internal declaration to act
- Behaviour; the action performed
What is Ajzen 1989; Ajzen & Madden’s 1986 perceived behavioural control? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A person’s belief, based on past experiences and present obstacles, that is easy or difficult to perform a behaviour
What is the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Suggests that predicting a behaviour from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behaviour
Who found that the habit of students using condoms was a predictor of future behaviour? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Trafimow (2000)
How does ‘planned behaviour’ relate to healthy behaviour? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Requires the belief that the person knows what they’re doing and looking for
What is protection motivation theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
The cognitive balance between perceived threat of illness and the capacity of the individual to cope with the health regime
What does Rodger’s argue that adaptive intentions are behaviour are facilitated by? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
- An increase in perceived severity of a health threat
- The vulnerability of the individual to that threat
- The perceived effectiveness of taking protective action
- Self-efficacy
What is self-efficacy? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
What we believe our capacity to succeed in particular tasks is
What is the difference between threat appraisal and coping appraisal? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Threat- whether the risks outweigh the perceived positives
Coping- Whether method of getting better will work and if they have the self-efficacy to do so
What is a maladaptive approach in protection motivation? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Intrinsic + extrinsic reward - severity + vulnerability = threat appraisal (PMT)
What is an adaptive approach in protection motivation? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Response-efficacy + self-efficacy - Response cost = coping appraisal (PMT)
What are accessible attitudes? (Eagly & Chaiken, 1988) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
They can be accessed from memory more easily and can be expressed more quickly.
They are associated with more behaviour-attitude consistency
What is Fazio, Ledbetter, & Towles-Schwen’s (2000) research study? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
24 same-sex photos were paired so one was relatively attractive and one was relatively unattractive. 5 morphs of the paired images were created and varied in attractiveness based on how much of the attractive person was used in comparison to the unattractive person. Participants formed highly accessible or less accessible attitudes. Highly accessible participants verbally rated how attractive each morph was. Less accessible participants verbally estimated the height of the morphed person. Participants were then told they would see different image of the same people and would have to quickly and accurately say if it was the same photo or a different one. High accessibility participants were slower and made more errors. This shows how a highly accessible attitude can become dysfunctional because it struggles to adjust to change and becomes stuck in time
What is automatic activation? (Fazio) (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Attitudes that have a strong evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come automatically to mind from memory.
Who made attitudes stronger by asking about them 6 times instead of 1? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Powell & Fazio (1984)
When attitudes are being formed, when do they correlate more strongly with a future behaviour (Glassman & Albarracin, 2006)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
- Attitudes are accessible
- Attitudes are stable over time
- Direct experience with attitude object
- Frequently recording their attitudes
What are moderator variables? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A causes B but only when the moderator variable is present
According to Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; McGuire, 1969; Oskamp. 1977, how do attitudes develop? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
They are learnt through the socialisation process.
Through experiences or through interaction with others
What is the mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object
What is evaluative conditioning? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
The degree of liking an object depending if it is paired with a positive or negative stimulus.
What is the spreading attitude effect and what is Walther’s 2002 example? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A liked or disliked person/attitude object affects the evaluation of a second person and even anything associated with the stimuli. For example, Mary is at a conference and sees Peter and Paul talking who she does not know. Then she sees Mark and Paul talk - she doesn’t not like Marks so she slightly more dislikes Peter (Evaluation conditioning), and Paul (Spreading attitude effect).
What is Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Gain knowledge of our self through self-attributions e.g.. infer our attitudes from our behaviour
What are the different ways you can learn attitudes? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Parents and peers
Mass media/internet
What is the difference between how values and attitudes are measured? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Attitudes are measured to reflect favourability towards something whereas values are measured for their importance in guiding principles in life
What were the 6 broad values measured (Allport & Vernon, 1931)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Theoretical- Interest in problem solving/how things work
Economic- Interest in econmic matters, finance, money affairs
Aesthetic- Interest in arts, theatre, music
Social- Concern for one’s fellows, social wellfare orientation
Political- Interest in political structures & power arrangements
Religious- Concern with theology, afterlife, morals
what is attitude change? (Hogg, Michael 2018;chapter 6)
a significant modification to a person’s attitude
What is the difference between terminal values and instrumental values? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Instrumental values are the means by which we achieve our end goals. Terminal values are defined as our end goals. Examples of instrumental values include being polite, obedient, and self-controlled. Examples of terminal values include family security, national security, and salvation.
How does Norman Feather (1994) define values? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
They are general beliefs about behaviours and goals
What are ideologies (Thompson 1990)? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Set of systematic beliefs which has the primary function of explanation
What does Philip Tetlock (1989) argue about terminal values? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Terminal values underline political ideologies
Give an example of terminal values underlining political ideologies. (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Machiavellianism ideology named after Machiavelli (Sixteenth century Florentine diplomat)
What is an ideological dilemma and who suggested it? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Michael Bilig (1991).
Everyday thinking arises from ideological dilemmas.
When there is conflict between values, it can trigger a class of attitudes between groups
What is terror management theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
The idea that the most fundamental motivation is to reduce terror of death. Therefore, self-esteem may be implicated in effective terror management.
What are social representations? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
People elaborate shared and simple understandings of their world through social interactions. (Serge Moscovici, 1983)
What is Fishbein and Ajzen’s 1974 expectancy-value model? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Direct experience with an attitude object informs how much that object should be liked or disliked in the future
What is the semantic differential? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
An attitude measure that asks for a rating on a scale composed of opposite adjectives
What is the Thurstone scale? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
An 11 point scale with 22 items, 2 for each point. Each items has a value ranging from favourable to unfavourable. Respondents check with the items they agree and attitude is defined as the average of their answers.
What is a Likert scale? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Respondents use a 5 point scale to show how much they agree or disagree with statements. Respondents score is added together and the answer is used as an indicator of attitude
what are the three variables involved in persuasion (the yale approach)? (chapter 6)
- communicator (who) = SOURCE
- communication (what) = MESSAGE
- characteristics of the audience (to whom) = AUDIENCE
What is an acquiescent response set? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Tendency to with items in an attitude questionnaire. This leads to ambiguity in interpretation.
What is the Guttman scale? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A scale containing favourable and unfavourable statements arranged hierarchally. Agreement with a strong statement proposes agreement with a weak statement and disagreement with a weak one implies disagreement with a strong one.
What is unidimensionality? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Guttman scale consists of a single dimension.
what is cognitive dissonance? (chapter 6)
psychological tension by simultaneously having 2 opposing cognitions
- people are motivated to reduce tension
- change or reject one of the cognitions
what did Festinger propose about cognitive dissonance? (chapter 6)
we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviours
we try to reduce tension
what is persuasive communication? (chapter 6)
a message intended to change an attitude and behaviours of an audience
What are the physiological measures for attitudes? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Skin resistance
Heart rate
Pupil dilation
Cortisol level on blood or saliva
How did Cacioppo and colleagues measure underling attitudes? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Through mapping facial muscle movements.
E.g. people listening to a speech would make facial movements that reflected attitudes of liberal and conservative views.
What is social neuroscience? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Measuring electrical activity in the brain associated with social cognition and social psychological processes
What is Levin’s 2000 social neuroscience study for attitude? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Showed white participants white faces and black faces whilst measuring electrical impulses in the brain. White participants had more electrical stimuli when there were white faces shown - indicating more attention being paid to the white faces
What is the relative homogeneity effect? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated.
How do we overtly measure attitude? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
By recording what people do including how they say things, non-verbal cues and the context
what are the 4 steps in the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
- attention
- comprehension
- acceptance
- retention
A C A R
What are unobtrusive measures? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Observational processes that don’t intrude on the processes being studies or cause the observant to act in an unnatural way.
who found out that people with high self-esteem are just as easily persuaded as people with low self-esteem, but don’t want to admit it? (chapter 6)
Baumeister and Covington (1985)
What is the Bogus pipeline technique? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
A measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses and convinces participants that they cannot hide their true attitudes
who said that when people are persuaded, they fail to recall their original opinion? (chapter 6)
Bem and McConnell (1970)
What are the components of an attitude in the sociocognitive model? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
An object label, rules, evaluative summary, knowledge structure
what is the outcome process of persuasion - 4? (chapter 6)
- opinion change
- perception change
- affect change
- action change
O P A A
What is the difference between (defined by Kihlstrom) implicit and unobstructive methods? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Unobstructive methods - assess an attitude that people are aware of but may be unwilling to reveal
Implicit- assesses an attitude that people are not aware of
What is bias in language use? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Positive ingroup and negative outgroup biases in the way that language is used
What is attitude priming? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Fazio and colleagues used priming to explore how we make judgement more quickly when an underlying attitude is congruent with a ‘correct’ response
What is priming? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Activation of accessible schemas in memory that influence how we process information
What is the implicit association test? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Reaction-time test to measure attitudes - Especially unpopular attitudes that people might conceal
What is impression management? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 5, key reading 3)
Peoples use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light
what are the WHO (source) factors - 3? (chapter 6)
- expertise - experts are more persuasive / argument carries more weight with facts
- popularity & attractiveness - make communicators more effective
- speech rate - rapid speech makes you seem like you know what you are talking about
E P S
How did Gordon Allport define social psychology? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
‘An attempt to understand and explain how thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others’
What is social influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
The process where attitudes and behaviours are influenced by real or imagined pressures of others
what are the WHAT (message) factors - 3? (chapter 6)
- perceived manipulation - persuaded more when we think the message is not deliberately intended to manipulate us
- linguistic power - powerless linguistic styles (hesitations) is less persuasive
- fear
M L F
What are ‘Norms’? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Attitudinal and behavioural uniformities that define group membership and differentiate between groups
What is compliance? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Superficial, public and transitory change in behaviour and expressed attitudes in response to request, coercion or group pressure. - Outward change in behaviour not internal
what are the TO WHOM (audience) factors - 4? (chapter 6)
- self-esteem - low self-esteem persuaded more easily
- distraction - more easily persuaded
- age - younger are more persuaded
- high quality message
D A S H
what is the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
the audience has to pay attention to the communicator’s message, understand the content, and think about what was said
what is critical to the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
audience’s thoughts:
- aroused good thoughts = accepted
- aroused bad thoughts = rejected
what is the third-person effect? (chapter 6)
most people think that they are less influenced than others by advertisements
What is the difference between reference groups and membership groups? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Reference - Physiologically significant for peoples attitudes and behaviour in a way that we seek to behave like them or opposite to them
Membership- Groups that we belong in by some objective criterion, external designation or social consensus
What is the dual-process dependency model? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
General model of social influence in which two separate processes operate -
dependency on others for social approval and for information about reality
what factors affects the acceptability of persuasive messages? - 2 (chapter 6)
- credibility (attractiveness, likeable, popular)
- similarity
What is the difference between compliance and conformity? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Compliance - external act of following commands and rules
Conformity- Adjusting own internal beliefs to match those of a group
what does the source mean in the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
sender - who does the communication come from?
what does the message mean in the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
signal - what medium is used and what does the argument involve
what does the audience mean in the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
receiver - who is the target
What are the 6 types of social power? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7) LICERR
Reward power- Giving or promising rewards for compliance
Coercive power- Give or threaten punishment for non-compliance
Informational power- Targets beliefs that the influencer has more information than oneself
Expert power- Targets beliefs that the influencer has more expertise and knowledge
Legitimate power- Targets belief that the influencer is recognised by a recognised power structure to command and make decisions
Referent power- Identification with, attraction to or respect for the source of influence
what was Bochner & Insko’s (1966) study and what were the results? - source (chapter 6)
- predicted that an audience would pay more attention to a credible communicator and more room for attitude change when a target’s opinion was more discrepant from that of the source
- participants were students - asked how much sleep was needed (8 hours)
- Nobel piece prize winner / 2. YMCA instructor
= more credible is more effective
= audience will resist if discrepancy is too big
What is the agentic state? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Characterises unquestioned obedience and people transfer responsibility on the people telling them to do something
what factors affects the message in persuasion? (chapter 6)
- present both sides of the argument if audience are intelligent / present one side if they aren’t
- comparative advertising - rival product is presented as inferior to a target product
- repetition
fear
What are factors influencing social influence according to Milgrams study? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Immediacy of the victim - how close the victim is
Immediacy of authority figure - If the authority figure was further away, it was harder to diffuse responsibility onto them
PROXIMITY
does fear affect persuasion? (chapter 6)
yes - it enhances it
what did Janis and Feshbach (1953)’s study say on the contrary of using fear in persuasion? (chapter 6)
three groups of children on dental health:
- low-fear = gum disease
- moderate-fear = explicit detail on oral disease
- high-fear = disease could spread to different parts of the body
= after a week -> LOW FEAR group were looking after their teeth the best/ high fear = the worst
What is frame of reference? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
the set of assumptions or criteria by which a person or group judges ideas, actions, and experiences.
What does autokinesis mean? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Optical illusion in which a pinpoint of light shining in complete darkness appears to move about
what did Leventhal, Watts & Pagano’s (1967) study suggest about fear in persuasion? (chapter 6)
using fear to stop smoking:
- moderate-fear = talk about link between smoking and lung cancer
- high-fear = operation on a person with lung cancer
= greater willingness to stop smoking from HIGH-FEAR
what did McGuire (1969) say on the difference between both fear studies? (chapter 6)
it is due to an inverted u-curve hypothesis
- the more we understand what is being presented to us, the more likely we are to accept the message
what is an inverted u-curve relationship between fear and attitude change? (chapter 6)
attitude change increases as fear increase to a MODERATE level
high levels of fear lead to a decrease in attitude change = lack of attention or disruption from intense emotions
what did Keller and Block (1995) say about fear and the dual-process model? (chapter 6)
people who are not frightened may not be motivated to attend to the message as it doesn’t effectively show the harmful consequences of the behaviour
what increases when fear does? (chapter 6)
arousal, interest, and attention
what happens something is extremely frightening? (chapter 6)
arouse lots of anxiety and panic -> we become DISTRACTED and miss factual content and unable to process information properly
How do cultural norms effect social influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Conformity is lower of people in individualist countries
What are the situational factors in conformity? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Group size - Increase in group size increases conformity
Group unanimity - Increases conformity with unanimity
What is informational influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
People accept information from other people as evidence for reality
What is normative influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
People conform to the positive expectations of others to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval
What is referent informational influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Pressure to conform to a group norm that defines oneself as a group member
based on the protection motivation theory, what should fear appeals reduce if they include an effective presentation of what? (chapter 6)
reduce dangerous health practices if there is an effective presentation of how to cope with the danger
what is Blascovich’s biopsychological model of challenge and threat? (chapter 6)
a demand can be perceived as a threat if you feel like you don’t have the resources to cope, and a challenge if you have the resources to cope
what is terror management theory? (chapter 6)
the most fundamental human motivation is to reduce terror of inevitability dying
self-esteem is centrally implicated in effective terror management
what did das, de wit & stroebe (2003) find out about threat appraisals? (chapter 6)
people are more likely to follow a health recommendation if they believe they are very vulnerable to the threat
What is social identity theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Involves social categorization - how we group individuals based on social information
Involves social comparison - People are motivated to obtain a positive social identity through positive intergroup social comparisons
what does terror management theory creates? (chapter 6)
paralysing terror
what does terror management theory make us seek? (chapter 6)
symbolic immortality by identifying with cultural institutions (religion)
What is the meta-contrast principle? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Exaggerate our differences and and emphasise similarities
What is minority influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
A member of a minority group influences the majority
What is a conformity bias? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Tendency for social psychology to treat group influence as a one-way process
What is Moscovivis genetic model of social influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Moscovici studied how consistent minorities create cognitive conflict and produce social innovation by disrupting established norms and making visible their alternative point of view
What is one of the most important behavioural style that a minority group can adopt? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Consistency - it disrupts majority norm and produces uncertainty and doubt
Draws attention to the minority as an entity
Demonstrates certainty and commitment
what is the difference between factual and evaluative advertising? (chapter 6)
factual - facts and objective = focuses on lots of info / price/production/quality etc.
evaluative - opinion and subjective = makes the consumer feel good about the product (emotions)
What did Moscovici argue that the difference between the way minority and majority groups exert influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Majority influence- direct public compliance for normative or informational dependence. They are accepted passively without much thought
Minority influence- indirect private change in opinion due to cognitive conflict. Minorities produce a conversion effect as a consequence of active consideration of minority point of view
what did Chaiken and Eagly (1983) find out about how a message should be presented? - video, audio etc. (chapter 6)
easy message = a videotaped presentation is the best for opinion change
difficult message = written
what did Rothman & Salovey (1997) find on messaging framing? (chapter 6)
plays an important role in attitude change:
- behaviour for detecting an illness -> preventing loss
- behaviour has positive outcome -> terms of gain
what is the sleeper effect? (chapter 6)
the impact of a persuasive message can increase OVER TIME when a discounting cue, such as an invalid source, cant be recalled:
What is the conversion effect? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
When minority influence brings about sudden and dramatic internal change in the attitudes of the majority
what did Kelman and Hovland associate the conclusion of a message with? - 2 (chapter 6)
- quality of the argument
- others cues (credibility of its source)
what does the sleeper effect predict? (chapter 6)
a less credible source will be just as persuasive as the more credible source a month later
= the message survives
= the source dies
what other phenomena does the sleeper effect resemble? (chapter 6)
- latent influence
- conversion in the minority influence
What are the three testable hypotheses of conversion theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Direction of attention - majority influence causes people to focus on their relationship with the majority whereas with minority, people think about the minority message
content of thinking - Majority influence leads to superficial examination of arguments, whereas minority influence leads to detailed evaluation of arguments
differential influence - Majority influence produces more public/direct influence than private/indirect like minority influence
What is convergent thinking in social influence by Nemeth? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
People expect to have the sane views as the majority, so the discovery through majority influence that their attitudes are in disagreement with the majority can be stressful which leads to a narrowing self-protective of focus of attention. This is convergent thinking that inhibits the consideration of alternate views
what does the inverted u-curve on self-esteem in persuasion suggest? (chapter 6)
people with high or low self-esteem are less persuadable than those with MODERATE SELF-ESTEEM
= low self-esteem -> more anxious = bad processing
= high self-esteem -> less susceptible to influences
What is divergent thinking in social influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
People do not expect to share views with the minority, therefore this discovery of agreement associated with minority influence is not stressful and does not narrow focus of thinking. This allows for divergent thinking that involves consideration of alternative views.
true or false - women are more easily persuaded than men? (chapter 6)
true
What is the difference between Moscovicis conversion theory and Nemeth’s divergent-convergent theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
The relationship that stress has on message processing
- Nemeth - Majority induces stress restricts message processing
- Moscovici - minority induced stress elaborates message processing
what are the 2 explanations for women being more easily persuaded? (chapter 6)
- women are socialised to be non-assertive and cooperative = less resistant than men to influence them
- women are more easily persuaded only when the topic is more familiar by men
What is Crano’s context comparison model of minority influence? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
When a minorities message involves weak and unvested attitudes, an ingroup minority can be quite persuasive
What is the leniency contract? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Majority assumes that because the minority is an ingroup, it is unlikely to want to destroy the majorities core attitudes and therefore the majority is leniant to the minority and their views
what are the limitations of the studies claiming that women are more easily persuaded? (chapter 6)
- most researchers were male
- topics used were male-oriented
= METHODOLOGICAL BIAS
What is the definition of attribution? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 7)
Process of assigning a cause to our behaviour and others behaviour
what did Carli (1990) find to oppose the gender differences in persuasion (chapter 6)
- participants listened to a recorded message by either a man or a woman
- they spoke assertively or not confidently
= female & tentative = men more easily influenced than female listeners
= male readers were influential in both categories
= depends on the sex, the message, and if it is delivered in a stereotypical way
what does gender differences in attitude change mirror? (chapter 6)
gender differences in social influence in small groups
what is a moderator variable? (chapter 6)
A causes B, but if C (the moderator) is involved
= improves the power
what are the 4 types of individual differences that make people less likely to be persuaded (chapter 6)
- need for closure
- need to evaluate
- preference for consistency
- attitude importance
what acts as a moderator variable that influences the personality-persuasibility relationship? (chapter 6)
social context
what are the five possibilities of age influencing persuasion? (chapter 6)
- increasing persistence - susceptibility to attitude change in higher when younger and decreases as you get older
- impressionable years - core attitudes, values and beliefs are defined in early adulthood - S CURVE
- life stages - high susceptibility during early adulthood and later life, but lower in middle adulthood - U CURVE
- lifelong openness - individuals are susceptible to attitude change throughout their lives
- persistence - most of an individual’s fundamental orientations are established firmly during pre-adult socialisation -> susceptibility is low
what are the other 2 audience variables that affect the persuasion process? (chapter 6)
- PRIOR BELIEFS = disconfirmation bias - makes the new message weak / affects whether factual evidence is considered
- COGNITIVE BIASES = people believe they are less influenced than others (third person effect) - dont identify
what is disconfirmation bias? (chapter 6)
tendency to notice and deny arguments that contradict our prior beliefs
what does the dual-process model of persuasion consist of? (chapter 6)
elaboration-likelihood model
heuristic-systematic model
what is the elaboration-likelihood model? (chapter 6)
persuasive message -> elaborated high -> CENTRAL ROUTE -> processed carefully
OR
persuasive message -> elaborated low -> PERIPHERAL ROUTE -> processed not carefully
what is the heuristic-systematic model? (chapter 6)
persuasive message -> carefully attend = SYSTEMATIC PROCESSING
OR
persuasive message -> not carefully attended = HEURISTIC PROCESSING (mental ‘short-cuts’)
at what point would we switch from systematic processing to heuristic processing? (chapter 6)
at the sufficient threshold:
- satisfy our need to be confident in our attitude
= not confident = systematic processing
= confident = heuristic processing
what can affect how well concentrate on the content of a persuasive message? (chapter 6)
mood
what does being in a good mood do to our attention to a persuasive message? (chapter 6)
being in a good mood affects our attention to information -> we can’t process systematically well
what happens when time is limited on our processing of a persuasive message? (chapter 6)
our good mood leads us to flick though autopilot = use heuristic processing or peripheral route
How does Chemers (2011) define leadership? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
A process of social influence through which an individual enlists and mobilises the aid of others in the attainment of a collective goal.
What is Great Person theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Perspective on leadership that attributes effective leadership to innate or acquired individual characteristics
What is the Big 5? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Five major personality dimensions - openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability
Why are the Big 5 important in leadership? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
The traits that leaders have
What is the situational perspective of leadership? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Anybody can lead under the right circumstances
What are autocratic leaders? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Leaders who use a styles based on giving out orders and expecting people to follow them
What are democratic leaders? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Use a style based on consultation and obtaining agreement and consent from followers
What are Laissez-faire leaders? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
leaving the group to their own devices and barely got involved.
What is the Leader behaviour description questionnaire? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
A scale devised by the Ohio state that leadership researchers use to measure leadership behaviour and distinguish between initiating structure and considerations dimensions
What are contingency theories? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Theories of leadership that consider the leadership effectiveness of particular behaviours or behavioural styles to be contingent on the nature of the leadership situation
- Fielders situational control contingency theory
- Normative decision theory
- Path-goal theory
What is Fielders contingency theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Distinguished between task-orientated leaders who are authoritarian, value group success and derive self-esteem from accomplishing a task rather than being liked in a group. And relationship-orientated leaders who are relaxed, friendly, non-directive, and sociable and gain self-esteem from happy and harmonious group relations
Other than Fred Fiedler (1964), which other psychologist distinguished between task-orientated leaders and relationship-orientated leaders? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Bales (1950)
How did Fiedler measure leadership style? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Least-preferred co-worker scale
What is the Least-preferred co-worker scale? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Respondents rate the person they least preferred as a co-worker on a number of different dimensions (pleasent-unpleasent, boring-interesting, friendly-unfriendly)
What did a high and low LPC score indicate? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
High LPC showed relationship-orientated
Low LPC showed task-orientated
What did the results of the LBDQ indicate? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
High score on initiating structure - define the groups objectives and organise members work towards attainment of these goals (TASK-OREINTATED)
High score on consideration - concerned with the welfare of subordinates and seek to promote harmonious relationship (RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTATED)
what is compliance? (chapter 6)
superficial / public change in behaviour due to group pressure or coercion
what is compliance more associated with? - 2 (chapter 6)
behaviour
individuals have some form of power over you
what are the 5 emotions / strategies for enhancing compliance? (chapter 6) - jones & pittman (1982)
- intimidation = elicit fear
- exemplification = elicit guilt
- supplication = elicit pity
- self-promotion = elicit respect and confidence
- ingratiation = get people to like you to secure compliance with a request
what are the steps of ingratiation? (chapter 6)
- agrees with them and get them to like them
- requests are made
what are the 3 tactics to enhance compliance? (chapter 6)
ingratiation
reciprocity principle
multiple requests
what is the reciprocity principle? (chapter 6)
gain compliance by doing someone a favour, or mutual aggression or mutual attraction
what are multiple requests? (chapter 6)
gain compliance by a 2-step procedure:
- request functions
- real request
= “foot in the door”
what is the foot in the door tactic? (chapter 6)
if someone agrees to a small request, they are more likely to comply to a larger request later on
what is the door in the face tactic (chapter 6)
the actual favour is accepted by asking them to do a larger request which they will decline
what is the low ball tactic? (chapter 6)
a person agrees to a request still feels committed even when they’ve found out their was hidden costs
what was freedman and fraser’s (1966) study on multiple requests? (chapter 6)
- asked people to let 6 people do a thorough inventory of their household items = 22% agreed
= if they had been spoken to before asking a few questions on what kind of soap they use = 53% agreed
when does the foot in the door tactic not work? (chapter 6)
when the requests are too small or too big
What is Fielders situational control? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
“the degree to which the situation provides the leader with potential influence over the group’s behavior”.
What is Fielders situational control scale? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Task-orientated leaders are most effective when situational control is low (because the group needs a directive leader to focus on getting things done) and high (because the group is doing fine)
Relationship-ordinated learders are most effective when situational conrrol is somewhere between the extremes
what did Dolinski (2000)’s study on demanding requests? (chapter 6)
- young man ask random people for directions to a made up street
- young woman asked the same people to look after a huge bag for five minutes
- control group = bag but no directions
= compliance HIGHER in the FIRST group
what psychological theory accounts for the foot in the door technique? (chapter 6)
bem’s self perception theory - complying with a small request makes people more committed to their behaviour and see themselves as “giving”
cialdini & trost (1998)’s self consistency - if we are charitable one time we will be again
What is Normative decision theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
A contingency theory focused on leadership in decision making contexts
What are the three decision-making strategies which leaders can choose from in normative decision making theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
- Autocratic - subordinate input is not sought
- Consultative - Subordinate input is sought, but leader remains the authority to make the final decision
- group decision-making - leader and subordinates are equal parts in a truly shared decision-making process
What is Path-goal theory? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
A contingency theory (can be classified as a transactional theory) that focuses on how structuring and consideration behaviours motivate followers
what is cialdini et al (1975)’s study on door in the face tactic? (chapter 6)
1 - “would you be a voluntary counsellor for two hours at a week for young offenders at a youth centre?” = no
2 - “would you chaperone a group of offenders on a two hour trip to the zoo?” = 50% YES
= large request no, but smaller request after yes
= second question alone = 17% yes
= should be asked by the SAME PERSON (feel pressure to say no again)
what do sunk costs have to do with the low ball tactic? (chapter 6)
once a course of action is decided, people will continue to invest in it even if the cost increase dramatically
what did cialdini et al’s (1978) study show about low ball tactics? (chapter 60
- asked half participants to do an experiment that started at 7am = control (31%)
- other half was told to do an experiemnt and then informed it was at 7am = low-ball = COMPLIED MORE (56%)
some compliance is due to our rational decisions, but what else might it be? (chapter 6)
mindlessness - agreeing to a request without giving it any thought
what is action research? (chapter 6)
attitude change can happen if people are ACTIVELY ENGAGED in the research process
what did Janis and King (1954) find out about action research? (chapter 6)
people who gave a speech arguing about something they are passionate about are most likely to accept attitude change when listening passively to the other side
what is cognitive dissonance theory? - festinger (1980)(chapter 6)
people actively organise their cognitions and change them to make them consistent with how they feel or act
= psychological tension when a person has 2 or more cognitions (bits of info) that are inconsistent
e.g. monogamy is important for marriage but is having an affair
When is structuring and consideration behaviours more appropriate? (Hogg, Michael 2018; chapter 9)
Structuring - more effective when followers are unclear about their goals and how to reach them
Consideration - most effective when the task is boring or uncomfortable
action research has played a role in addressing health issues related to smoking and sun exposure - what did hill et al. (1993) find out about melanomas? (chapter 6)
- highest in australia
- campaign -> “SLIP! SLAP! SLOP!” = three year study
- less sunburn = 11 - 7%
- more hats = 19 -29%
- more suncream - 12 -21%
- more clothing - 67 -71%
