Socialism

Question 1

Idea of collectivism

Answer 1

Collectivism is one of the most important ideas underpinning socialist ideology, informing other socialist values and principles including equality, welfare and common ownership.
It maintains that humans can achieve their political, social and economic objectives more effectively through collective action than through individual effort. Collectivism also implies that society can only be transformed by collective endeavour - for socialists, it offers a way of achieving an ideal society.

Question 2

Why do socialists endorse collectivism (2)?

Answer 2

Socialists endorse collectivism for two fundamental reasons.
• From a moral perspective, the interests of the group - such as a society or a community - should take priority over individual self-interest. Collective effort encourages social unity and a sense of social responsibility towards others
In practical economic terms, collectivism utilises the capabilities of the whole of society efficiently, avoiding the wastefulness and limited impact of competitive individual effort
inherent in the capitalist economy.

Question 3

How is the collectivist idea rooted in socialist idea of human nature?

Answer 3

Collectivism reflects the socialist view that it is more important to pursue the interests of a society or a community rather than individual self-interest.
This emphasis on collectivism is rooted in the socialist view of human nature, which argues that humans are social animals; as such, they prefer to live in social groups rather than alone. It follows that humans have the capacity for collective action and can work together in order to achieve their goals. In this sense, they are tied together by the bonds of fraternity.
Socialists also argue that human nature is moulded by social conditions - the experiences and circumstances of a person’s life. According to the socialist view, people can only be defined or understood in terms of the social groups they belong to. This line of argument leads socialists to conclude that membership of a community or society offers humans true freedom and fulfilment.

Question 4

Fraternity def

Answer 4

literally a brotherhood’-
humans bound together by comradeship and a common outlook because they share the same basic nature and interests, while differences due to class, religion, nationality and ethnic background are far
less significant.

Question 5

Capitalism def

Answer 5

wealth is privately owned and goods and services are produced for profit, as determined by market forces. The capitalist system has developed over the last five centuries to become the economic driving force of the modern global economy.

Question 6

Communism def

Answer 6

an economic and political system advocated by Karl Marx in which private ownership of the means of production is abolished in favour of common ownership. A classless society is established, production is based on human need, and the state withers away. Marxists argue that it is only under such a system that humans can realise their full potential.

Question 7

Marxism def

Answer 7

an ideological system, within socialism, that drew on the writings of Marx and Engels and has at its core a philosophy of history that explains why it is inevitable that capitalism will be replaced by communism.

Question 8

General socialist view of collectivism

Answer 8

Most socialists call for some form of state intervention and state planning to promote collectivist goals and ensure that the distribution of goods and services is not left to free-market forces. The pursuit of collectivism is commonly seen to involve the growth of the state, the expansion of state services and responsibilities, and an increase in state spending.

Question 9

Other branch views of collectivism

Answer 9

Marxists and state socialists advocate collective action through a centralised state that organises all (or nearly all) production and distribution. For example, in the USSR after 1929, most industries were nationalised and all agricultural land was collectivised in order to transform a backward state into a modern industrial society, using complete state control of the economy to bring about change. After the Second World War, communist regimes in China and eastern Europe pursued similar policies of state-controlled collectivism.
Moderate socialists who accept some degree of free-market capitalism in the economy have pursued collectivism in a more limited way. For instance, the 1945-51 Labour government in the UK nationalised key industries - such as coal, electricity, and iron and steel - but left much of the
economy in private hands.

Question 10

What collectivism means for different areas of policy

Answer 10

Housing:
Subsidised homes provided by local
government

Industrial relations:
Workers organised if trade unions with bargaining rights over terms and
conditions.

Education:

The state runs the school system, which is free and available to everyone.

Health care:

National health service, funded from
genera taxation. Provides free care based on need.

Industry:

Key industries under state control to operate in the national interest.

Question 11

Different concepts about what collectivism is

Answer 11

In many ways collectivism is a difficult concept to pin down precisely. This is partly because it is often used to describe very different things. The term has been applied to small self-governing communities (such as those based on the ideas of the 19th-century socialists Robert Owen and Charles Fourier), general opposition to individualism, and a system of centralised state control the directs the economy and society.

Question 12

Criticisms of collectivism

Answer 12

There are two basic criticisms of collectivism.
• Because collectivism emphasises group action and common interests, it suppresses human individuality and diversity.
• As collectivist objectives can only really be advanced through the agency of the state, it leads» the growth of arbitrary state power and the erosion of individual freedoms.

Question 13

Modern status of collectivism

Answer 13

Since the 1970s, socialists generally have attached less importance to collectivism. This is due to a growing perception that collectivism in developed countries such as the UK (mainly in the form of state welfare, trade union power and government intervention in the economy) was producing a dependency culture and a sluggish, uncompetitive economic sector. The end of the Cold War in 1989 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 reinforced this view as collectivism suffered a significant ideological defeat.

Question 14

Belief of common humanity and how it links to cooperation

Answer 14

The socialist belief in a common humanity is also based on assumptions about human nature.
Socialists see humans as social creatures with a tendency towards co-operation, sociability and rationality; humans naturally prefer to co-operate with, rather than compete against, each other.
In fact, the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, because human behaviour is socially determined.
Socialists advocate co-operation based on their positive view of human nature. They argue that humans are naturally inclined to work together for the common good and that co-operative effort produces the best results for society. Co-operation also reinforces and reflects the socialist idea of a common humanity, in both moral and economic terms. People who co-operate rather than compete with each other form connections based on understanding, respect and mutual support.
They also channel the capabilities of the whole group or community, rather than just the potential of a single individual.

Question 15

What do socialists believe about competition?

Answer 15

By contrast, according to the socialist view, competition (particularly within a capitalist economy) is wasteful, promotes social divisions and generates conflict, hostility and resentment. Socialists maintain that capitalist economic competition sets one person against another, a process that encourages people to reject or disregard their common humanity (and social nature) rather than
accept it. It encourages humans to be selt-centred and belligerent.

Question 16

What do socialists believe about common humanity and motivation

Answer 16

This emphasis on a common humanity has led socialists to conclude that human motivation can be driven not just by material considerations but also by a moral view of people’s role in society.
People should work hard in order to improve their society or community because they have a sense Of responsibility for other humans, particularly the least fortunate. The moral incentive to improve society rests on the acceptance of a common humanity.
For the economy to function properly, most contemporary socialists accept the need for at least some material rewards to motivate people, but they also stress that these should be linked to moral incentives. For example, co-operative effort to boost economic growth not only increases living standards for the working population but also provides the funds (through taxation) to ninance welfare measures to help the vulnerable and the poor.

Question 17

What do socialists believe about common humanity and state intervention?

Answer 17

Finally, the belief in a common humanity has led socialists to support an interventionist role for the state. Marxists and state socialists argue that the agency of the state can be used to control economic production and dis:ribution for the benefit of everyone. Social democrats also advocate state intervention, in the more limited form of welfare and redistribution programmes, to help those in the greatest need.

Question 18

Common ownership def

Answer 18

the means of production is owned by the workers so that all are able to participate in its running and to benefit from the wealth of society.

Question 19

Three justifications for social equality

Answer 19

Social equality ensures fairness
Economic inequality (differences in wealth), according to the socialist view, is due to the structural inequalities in a capitalist society, rather than innate differences of ability among people. For this reason, some socialists tend to reject equality of opportunity because, in their view, such a concept justifies the unequal treatment of people on the grounds of innate ability. This argument reflects a view of human nature that emphasises people are born with the potential to be equal.
Other socialists maintain that, since it is part of human nature to have different abilities and attributes, inequality in the form of differential rewards is inevitable to some extent. These socialists tend to endorse an egalitarian approach to ensure that people are treated less unequally, in terms of material rewards and living conditions. Without this commitment to socialist egalitarianism, formal political and legal equality is compromised because, on its own, the latter does nothing to tackle the structural inequalities (such as social class) inherent in capitalism.
Social equality reinforces collectivism
A second argument is that social equality reinforces collectivism, co-operation and solidarity within society and the economy. Put simply, human beings are more likely to co-exist harmoniously in society and work together for the common economic good if they share the same social and economic conditions. For example, modern Sweden has high levels of social equality based on extensive wealth redistribution and social welfare. Socialists argue that such measures have made a major contribution to the stability, cohesion and economic output of Swedish society.
Social inequality, on the other hand, encourages conflict and instability. Societies with great economic and social inequalities are unstable because they are sharply divided into the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots.
Eventually, if the situation is not addressed, the disadvantaged sections of society will revolt in protest against their conditions, as happened in Russia in 1917 and Mexico in 1910-20. In a similar way. socialists also condemn equality of opportunity for fostering a competitive ‘dog-eat-dog’ outlook.
Social equality is a means of satisfying basic human needs
A third view is that social equality is a means of satisfying basic human needs that are part of human nature and essential to a sense of human fulfilment. Given that all people’s basic needs are the same (such as food, friendship and shelter), socialists call for the equal, or more equal, distribution of wealth and resources to promote human fulfilment and realise human potential.
In terms of the economy, most socialists agree that the free market, driven by the profit motive, cannot allocate wealth and resources fairly to all members of society. In their view, only the redistributive mechanism of the state can provide for everyone, irrespective of social position, and combat the divisive effects of the free market.

Question 20

Branch views of equality

Answer 20

A key debate within socialism focuses on the extent to which social and economic equality can or should be achieved. In many ways, this is a debate about the role of the state. Revolutionary socialists, such as Marxists, demand absolute equality for everyone in terms of material rewards and life opportunities. Such equality can be guaranteed only by the controlled distribution of goods and services, the abolition of private property and the introduction of common ownersh of all means of production. Under this system, the state exercises common ownership and supervises the distribution of resources to prevent the return of social and economic inequalities. By contrast, social democrats call for more limited state intervention to achieve relative equality within society via welfare measures, government spending and progressive taxation. Their primary aim is to remove absolute poverty and, if this can be achieved, then a certain level of inequality can be tolerated. For social democrats, the state does not own or control all the means of production
- its role is to adjust distribution to narrow differences in wealth and life chances. In essence, social democrats seek to reform rather than abolish capitalism and for this reason maintain that material incentives continue to play an important role in human motivation. As a result, the social-dernociat position on social equality is flexible enough to embrace equality of opportunity

Question 21

Socialist view of private ownership

Answer 21

As wealth is created by the communal endeavour of humans, it should be owned collectively, not by individuals.
•Private property encourages materialism and fosters the false belief that the achievement of personal wealth will bring fulfilment.
• Private property generates social conflict between ‘have and “have-not’ groups, such as owners
and workers
Broadly speaking, socialists have argued either that private property should be abolished entirely and replaced with common ownership or that the latter should be applied in a more limited way. In the USSR from the 1930s, the Stalinist regime implemented an all-encompassing form of common ownership by bringing the entire economy under state control. More moderate socialists, including the Attlee Labour government in the UK (1945-51), have opted for limited common ownership by nationalising only key strategic industries, including the coal mines, the railways and steel-making, leaving much of the economy in private hands. However, in recent decades, western socialist parties have placed less emphasis on common ownership in lavour of other objectives

Question 22

Equality of outcome

Answer 22

Equality of outcome maintains that rewards should be based on an individual’s contribution. Since this will vary from person to person some inequality will persist but differences in
rewards will not be as marked as in the free-market system. quality of outcome tends to be supported by fundamentalist socialists (who reject capitalism) as a way of removing the free market’s influence but opposed by social democrats and the Third way as a form of artificial social and economic ‘levelling’.

Question 23

Equality of opportunity

Answer 23

Equality of opportunity is based on the principle that everyone should have an equal chance to make the best of their ablities. There should be a level playing field with no artificial
barriers to propress for those with ability talent and a positive attitude to hard work This approach is supported by social vernocrats and the Third Way on meritocratic grounds but rejected by Marxists because it does not seek to remove copitalism and its structural inequalities

Question 24

Absolute equality

Answer 24

Absolute equauty is based on the notion that evervone will receive the same rewards, providing they make a contribution to society. Over time, each person will make a broadly equal contribution. This approach is supported by Marxists as the basis of a communist society but rejected by social democrats and the Third Way as impractical and potentially destabilising.

Question 25

Equality of welfare

Answer 25

Equality of welfare accepts that human society is inevitably unequal but also maintains that every individual is entitled to have an equal minimum standard of living guaranteed by state welfare provision. Equality of welfare is endorsed by social democrats and the Third Way because it provides a vital satety net for the most vulnerable in society. Marxists reject it because this welfare provision does not seek to remove capitalism and it’s structural inequalities.

Question 26

What do opponents of social equality argue?

Answer 26

• it is unjust - in treating everybody the same irrespective of their attributes, it does not reward people according to their skills and abilities • it lowers human ambition, motivation and initiative by removing or downgrading material incentives, leading to economic underperformance • it restricts the liberties of the individual because it can only be implemented through extensive state intervention and control • it stifles diversity and individuality, encouraging a 'colourless' social uniformity.

Question 27

Importance of class in socialism

Answer 27

For socialists, the existence of social classes explains the most important divides in society, rather than the actions of individuals or the essence of human nature itself. At one level, socialists have used the concept of social class to enhance their understanding of social and political development. This approach has led them to conclude that people with a similar socio-economic position in society share a similar outlook and have common aims. It follows that social classes, rather than individuals or human nature, have been the principal agents of change throughout history. For example, Marxists assert that conflict between ruling and revolutionary classes is the driving force behind such change in society. At another level, socialism's focus on social class is based on an ideological commitment to represent the interests of, and improve conditions for, the working class. Indeed, for socialists, the working class provides the means for bringing about a socialist transformation of Society and the economy. Having said this, social class is not viewed as either an essential or everlasting feature of society because communist societies aim to eradicate all class distinctions, and other socialist societies seek to diminish class inequalities significantly.

Question 28

Marxist view of class

Answer 28

Social class provides a way of categorising and analysing society by dividing it into different economic and social groups. In basic terms, a social class consists of a group of people with similar social and economic characteristics. Marxism, in particular, has offered a highly influential class analysis of society and politics. From a communist perspective, a person's class is determined by their position within the economy (such as a landowner, a capitalist or a wage earner) and these economically based class distinctions powerfully shape the nature of society. The crucial Marxist class division is between capital and labour - between the bourgeoisie (who own productive wealth) and the proletariat (who have to sell their labour power in order to survive). Marxists traditionally emphasise the fundamental role of class politics based on the economic division between capital and labour. In this analysis, a person's class position is economically determined by their relationship to the means of production. Marxism maintains that conflict is inevitable between the owners of productive wealth (the capitalists or the bourgeoisie) and those who have to sell their labour to survive (the proletariat or working class). Under the capitalist system, argue Marxists, the state becomes an instrument of class rule, with the bourgeoisie using institutions and agencies (such as the political and legal systems, the bureaucracy and the police) to maintain their dominance. Nevertheless, this class conflict, according to Marxist theory, grows in intensity and inevitably divides society sharply into two antagonistic groups - the 'haves' and 'have-nots' Eventually, this process leads to a proletarian revolution that overthrows the capitalist state and the bourgeoisie. For Marxists, the state will only wither away once the workers' gains have been consolidated and social class differences are replaced by a classless, equal society.

Question 29

Other definitions of class

Answer 29

Other definitions of class commonly focus on how occupational groups - such as middle class/white collar/non-manual workers and working class/blue collar/manual workers - differ in terms of income and status. Marketing organisations have developed a more sophisticated classification scheme that distinguishes between six catecories: A- Higher managerial, administrative or professional B- Intermediate managerial, administrative or professional CI- Supervisory, clerical C2- Skilled manual worker D- Semi-skilled and unskilled manual worker E- State pensioner, casual worker and unemployed

Question 30

Current importance of class

Answer 30

The British Election Study; which analyses voting behaviour, uses another class scheme. This distinguishes between owners and managers, and between the petite bourgeoisie (small proprietors) and the working class. Most contemporary political commentators maintain that social class nos exerts a declining influence on society due to deindustrialisation and dealignment (a trend that sees a social group abandoning its previous partisan loyalty to a particular party, resulting in less predictable voting patterns. Over the last 50 years or so, the connection between socialist ideology and class politics has weakened considerably. The decline in class politics, reflected in the social democrats more moderate stance, has been an important consequence of signiticant changes in the economy notably deindustrialisation and the rise of the service sector. Deindustrialisation has led to the decline of traditional staple industries (such as coal mining and steel making), which had previously supported a culture of working-class solidarity, pro-socialist-worker politics and powerful trade union organisations. The contraction of the staple industries has undermined working-class solidarity and working-class communities, and has reduced the size of the manual workforce. Deindustrialisation has created post-industrial societies with service- and information-based economies and expanding middle classes As a result, in recent decades, moderate socialist parties have adapted their programmes to appeal to non-manual workers. They have also attempted to redefine their brand of progressive politics in terms of 'classless' concerns, such as green and feminist issues, and have placed less emphasis on the redress of working class grievances.

Question 31

Social democrat view of class

Answer 31

By contrast. social democrats denine social class in more fluid terms, emphasising income and status differences between non-manual and manual occupational groups. Social democrats also tend to argue that socialist objectives can be achieved througn targeted state intervention to narrow (not remove) class cistinctions. The state, according to social democrats, does not represent an instrument of oppressive class rule but rather provides the welfare and redistribution schemes by which class inequalities can be reduced. Unlike Marxists, who stress class conflict and revolutionary action, social democrats advocate class consensus in society and peaceful social improvement

Question 32

Idea of workers’ control

Answer 32

The term 'workers' control' refers to the complete or partial ownership of an economic enterprise (such as a business or factory) by those employed there. It can also be used in a wider and more political sense to mean workers' control of the state. The concept has influenced different strands of socialist thought, including Marxism and syndicalism. Workers' control covers a range of schemes that aim to provide workers with full democratic control over their places of employment. These schemes go beyond the right to be consulted and participate by seeking to establish real decision-making powers for workers in their particular industries or occupations.

Question 33

Justification for workers control

Answer 33

Such a system is often justified in terms of core socialist ideas and principles. First, workers' control is clearly based on socialist views about human nature, as it promotes collective effort and the pursuit of group (rather than individual) interests. Furthermore, some socialists have argued that workers' control, with its emphasis on fully involving employees in all aspects of the production process, can maximise human potential by combating alienation at the workplace and undermining the capitalist view of labour as a mere commodity.

Question 34

Workers’ control’s implications for the economy

Answer 34

Workers' control has significant implications for the economy. Some socialists maintain that, as the workers are the key factor in the production process, they should have the right to control the means of production. Workers' control aims either to dilute or replace capitalist control of the economy. For example, French syndicalists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries called for the overthrow of capitalism and the introduction of workers' control of the economy based on the trade unions and proletarian political institutions.

Question 35

Views about workers’ control and the state

Answer 35

Those endorsing workers' control hold contrasting views regarding the role played by the state in the socialist transformation. Syndicalists are hostile towards the state, regarding it as an instrument of capitalist oppression and an inefficient bureaucratic structure incapable of initiating meaningful reform. Consequently, they call for the state to be forcibly replaced with a form of workers' control based on a federation of trade union bodies. British guild socialism, a pro-workers' control movement that emerged in the early 20th century, was internally divided over the role of the state. Although all guild socialists argued for state ownership of industry in the pursuit of workers' control, some called for the state to remain essentially in its existing form, whereas others called for the state to be turned into a federal body composed of workers' guilds, consumers* organisations and local government bodies.

Question 36

Belief about workers’ controls and society

Answer 36

Finally, workers' control can be seen as an important step towards a socialist society. At one end of the spectrum, 'moderate' workers' control in a capitalist society (such as increased trade union and shopfloor influence over manager's decisions) provides a method of introducing limited reforms to the social and economic structure. At the other end, industrial self-management by workers living under state socialism (such as the workers' councils operating in Yugoslavia in the 19505 and 1960s) reinforces the idea that a socialist society should raise the condition and status of the working class.

Question 37

Criticisms of workers’ control

Answer 37

Critics reject such schemes on the grounds that they are utopian and fail to acknowledge that business needs risk-takers and investors as well as workers. According to this view, workers often lack the entrepreneurial attributes necessary for success. In taking over the management functions of appointments, promotions and dismissals, manual employces may adversely affect the economic viability of their workplace.

Question 38

Russian Revolution case study

Answer 38

• In mid-1917, the Russian economy collapsed under strain of the First World War. Workers' factory committees were established to supervise or replace managers, to try to maintain production By October 1917, this involved about 40 per cent of the Russian industrial working-class. . Bolsheviks issued the Decree on Workers' Control (November 1917), giving additional powers to factory committees • Lenin was worried that factory committees would not follow Bolshevik directives. By 1918, he was taking steps to curb their powers. Factory committees later merged with trade unions under firm Bolshevik control.

Question 39

Guild socialism in Britain case study

Answer 39

• Emerged in the early 20th century and gained momentum during the First World War, due to rise of left-wing shop stewards movement, which called for workers control in war inaustries. Guild socialists advocated state ownership of industry and workers' control by delegating authority to democratically run national guilds. . The movement collapsed in 1920s, but stimulated debate in the Labour Party and trade-union movement about workers control.

Question 40

Syndicalism in France case study

Answer 40

• Militant trade-union movement began in France in the 1890s, heavily influenced by Georges Sorel's thinking on direct action and use of general strike to secure working-class objectives. • Once a general strike had destroyed capitalist order, syndicalists envisaged a system where each industry would be run by trade unions and political institutions; the state would be replaced by workers' control based on a federation of trade-union bodies. • Syndicalist ideas influenced the development of labour organisations in Italy, Spain and USA in the early 20th century.

Question 41

Revolutionary socialism def

Answer 41

Revolutionary socialism rejects the use of democratic methods in the pursuit of a socialist society.

Question 42

Why was rev socialism popular in the 19th century?

Answer 42

The early development of industrialisation and capitalism brought poverty, exploitation and Unemployment, which was expected to radicalise the working classes who were at the sharp end of these changes. • As the workers were not part of the political nation; they had little ability to influence policies in government systems usually dominated by the landed aristocracy or bourgeoisie

Question 43

Why does rev socialism reject gradual change?

Answer 43

Socialism through revolution is also based on the conviction that the state is a 'bourgeois' instrument of class oppression, defending capitalist interests against those of the working classes. The primacy of the ruling class is reinforced by key institutions and agencies of the state, such as the parliamentary system, the mass media and high finance. Piecemeal or gradual change will not lead to a genuinely socialist society because the ruling class and bourgeois values are too firmly entrenched. For example, capitalists are adept at infiltrating political parties, representative assemblies and labour organisations in order to blunt their radicalism.

Question 44

What does rev socialism call for?

Answer 44

Furthermore, revolutionary socialism calls for a total transformation of society, so the existing state has to be completely uprooted and replaced with new revolutionary institutions. Such a fundamental change often leads to violence; the ruling class is unlikely to give up its power without a fight. Thus revolutionary socialists in Russia (1918-21), China (1946-49) and Mexico (1910-20) had to fight bloody civil wars to establish their regimes. Finally, revolutionary socialists maintain that any attempt to 'humanise' capitalism, a system based on inequality and exploitation, would completely undermine the principles and objectives of socialism.

Question 45

Modern history of rev socialism

Answer 45

After the Second World War, revolutionary socialism was adopted by many national liberation movements in Africa, Asia and South America, including the Chinese communists led by Mao, the Viet Cong directed by Hoäng Van Thai and the Cuban insurgents under Castro. These movements concluded that such a strategy was the only way to remove the colonial powers and their domestic allies and dismantle outdated social and economic systems. The intention was to bring about rapid modernisation to enable these societies to catch up with the more prosperous and technologically advanced industrial countries. The pursuit of the 'revolutionary road' has usually resulted in fundamentalist socialist regimes, such as those established in the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China and Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge. In all three cases, successful insurrection destroyed the old order, which permitted the creation of a new socialist society based on state control of the economy. Revolutionary strategy also encouraged the establishment of rigid hierarchical parties with dominant leaders and the use of ruthless dictatorial political methods to remove all opposition and introduce totalitarianism. The end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s delivered a hugely damaging blow to revolutionary socialism as communism collapsed in the Soviet Union and the satellite states of the Eastern bloc.

Question 46

Social justice def

Answer 46

a commitment to greater equality and a just distribution of wealth in order to achieve a more equitable distribution of life chances within society.

Question 47

What is social democracy?

Answer 47

Social democracy emerged after 1945 as western socialist parties embraced electoral politics and switched to the more limited aim of reforming, rather than abolishing, capitalism. Ideologically, social democracy attempts to reconcile free-market capitalism with state intervention, based on three assumptions. Although the capitalist system is a dependable creator of wealth, the way it distributes wealth produces inequality and poverty. State intervention in economic and social affairs can protect the public and remedy the weaknesses of capitalism Peaceful and constitutional methods should be used to bring about social change. Social democracy is chiefly concerned with the just or fair distribution of wealth in society; its defining core value is social justice. This form of socialism rests on a moral, rather than a Marxist critique of capitalism: socialism is morally superior to capitalism. Christian principles have also informed the social-democratic position, notably the Christian socialist tradition in the UK and iberation theology' in Latin America. Social democracy can encompass a variety of perspectives, including the acceptance of private-sector productivity and personal responsibility.

Question 48

History of social democracy?

Answer 48

By the late 19th century, some socialist thinkers concluded that the Marxist analysis of capitalism was flawed. Eduard Bernstein published a revisionist study, Evolutionary socialsm (1899), which argued that capitalism was not developing along Marxist lines. Instead of succumbing to economic crises and promoting ever-deepening class conflict, the capitalist system was proving resilient and adaptable. Bernstein argued, for example, that joint stock companies had widened the ownership of wealth through shareholders, rather than concentrating it in the hands of fewer and fewer capitalists. Bernstein concluded that capitalism was not a brutally exploitative system and it could be reformed peacefully through electoral politics. He advocated state ownership of key industries, and legal safeguards and welfare measures to protect the workers. During the 20th century, western socialist parties increasingly recognised the dynamism and productivity of the market economy, abandoned their commitment to economic planning and pursued a revisionist policy of reforming capitalism. The Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party and the West German Social Democratic Party made this shift officially in the 1930s and 1950s respectively. The British Labour Party remained formally committed to common ownership until 1995, but post-war Labour governments never subjected the British economy to extensive state control. The early post-1945 decades were the heyday of social democracy, but this depended on two potentially conflicting features. By viewing market economics as the only secure way to create wealth, social democrats effectively conceded that capitalism could be reformed but not removed. Al the same time, social democracy retained its socialist credentials by calling for social justice and Ostributive equality - the reduction of poverty and some redistribution of wealth to assist poorer social groups. In short, social democracy was a balancing act that attempted to deliver both economic efficiency and egalitarianism. This central tension within social democracy was concealed during the early post-war boom-decades when economic growth, high employment and low inflation delivered rising living standards for most people and the tax revenues to expand welfare programmes. By the 1970s and 1980s, however, a sharp economic downturn exposed this central tension within social democracy. With unemployment mounting, the demand for welfare services increased as the tax-based funding for such social support declined (due to fewer people having a job and company profits falling). Now, social democrats faced a fundamental dilemma: should they reduce inflation and taxes to stimulate the economy or prioritise the funding of welfare to protect the lower paid and unemployed? Other factors also exacerbated the difficulties of social democracy in the 1980s and 1990s. The impact of the shift to a post-industrial service-based economy, and the contraction of the working class due to deindustrialisation, reduced social democracy's traditional electoral base. The collapse of the Soviet communist bloc (1989-91) inflicted further damage on social democracy. Popular rejection of the Soviet system also discredited other forms of socialism, including social democracy, which looked to the state to deliver economic and social reform.

Question 49

Three main elements of social democratic programme

Answer 49

•Support for a mixed economy of both state and privately owned enterprises, with only key strategic industries nationalised, as under the Attlee Labour government of 1945-51. Keynesianism as a means of regulating the capitalist economy and maintaining full employment Reform of capitalism chiefly through the welfare state, which would redistribute wealth to tackle social inequality and the problem of poverty.

Question 50

Anthony Crosland’s ideas about social democracy

Answer 50

In 1956, the British socialist Anthony Crosland put forward the intellectual case for social democracy in his book The Future of Socialism. Crosland maintained that a new skilled governing class of salaried managers, technocrats and officials had now taken over the control of industry from the old capitalist class. The pursuit of profit was only one of its objectives because this new technical and administrative elite also had wider concerns, such as the maintenance of good employer-worker relations and the protection of the business's reputation. Consequently, Crosland asserted, capitalism was no longer a system of harsh class oppression, and extensive state direction and control was now irrelevant Instead, Crosland emphasised the need for social justice (rather than common ownership) by stressing the redistributive role of the welfare state funded by progressive taxation. Under such a system, Crosland argued, economic growth would sustain social democracy. An expanding economy would provide the taxation revenue to pay for welfare spending and improve the living standards of the more affluent, who were expected to finance this social expenditure.

Question 51

Evolutionary socialism def

Answer 51

a form of socialism advocating a parliamentary route to deliver a long-term, radical transformation in a gradual, piecemeal way through legal and peaceful meals.

Question 52

Revisionism def

Answer 52

a revised political theory that modifies the established or traditional view. Here, revisionism refers to the critical reinterpretation of Marxism.

Question 53

What is Keynesian’s economics?

Answer 53

the economic theory developed by British economist John Maynard Keynes, which argued that covemments should- -spend or invest money to stimulate the economy and boost demand in times of recession. -use taxation and interest rates to manage demand within the economy, sustaining growth and deterring recession.

Question 54

What is the Third way?

Answer 54

Partly in response to this crisis of social democracy, from the 1980s reformist socialist parties in Europe and elsewhere revised their ideological stance and moved away from traditional social-democratic principles. Their new position, known as the 'third way' or 'neo-revisionism' attempted to formulate an ideological alternative to traditional social democracy and free-market neo-liberalism in the context of a modern globalised economy. New Labour first introduced neo-revisionism in the UK during the 1990s. There is considerable disagreement over the third way's relationship to socialism due to the ideologically nebulous nature of neo-revisionism.

Question 55

What are the five key features which characterise third-way thinking?

Answer 55

The primacy of the market over the state The value of community and moral responsibility A social model based on consensus and harmony Social inclusion A competition or market state

Question 56

The primacy of the market over the state - Third Way

Answer 56

The third way accepts the primacy of the market over the state and rejects 'top down' state intervention. Neo-revisionists accept globalisation and the 'knowledge economy' where information and communication technologies ensure competitiveness and productivity. By endorsing a dynamic market economy and an enterprise culture to maximise wealth creation, the third way has ideological links with neo-liberalism. Under New Labour, for example, the private sector became involved in the provision of public services through Private Finance Initiative (PF) schemes and Public-Private Partnerships (PPP). This pro-market-economy stance also led neo-revisionists to downplay the socialist policy of redistributing wealth through progressive taxation

Question 57

The value of community and moral responsibility - Third Way

Answer 57

Neo-revisionists also endorse the value of community and moral responsibility. Here, third-way thinking distances itself from the perceived moral and social downside of neo-liberal economics - a market-driven free-for-all. New Labour attempted to resolve this tension in the late 19905 and early 2000s by linking communitarian and liberal ideas. The resulting communitarian liberalism emphasised that personal autonomy operates within a communal context based on mutual dependence and benefit, balancing rights with responsibilities. Neo-revisionist initiatives in the U regarding welfare and parental involvement in schools reflected these assumptions.

Question 58

A social model based on consensus and harmony - Third Way

Answer 58

Third-way thinking puts forward a social model based on consensus and harmony that clearly differs from the traditional scialist focus on class differences and inequality. Consequently, third-way advocates see no contradiction in endorsing what might be seen as opposing values or concepts. Neo-revisionists, for example, champion self-reliance and mutual dependence, and the market economy and faimness

Question 59

Social Inclusion - Third Way

Answer 59

Third-way supporters have also shifted away from the socialist commitment to equality in order to endorse the concept of social inclusion (individuals can only participate fully in society by acquiring the appropriate skills, rights and opportunities). Neo-revisionists, therefore, emphasise equality of opportunity and the benefits of a meritocratic social system. The third way does not oppose great individual wealth providing it helps to improve the overall prosperity of society. Furthermore, welfare should target socially marginalised groups and provide people with the assistance they need to enable them to improve their own situation. Tony Blair, the UK Labour prime minister, summed up this approach as 'a hand up, not a handout'. The neo-revisionist assumption here is that welfare support should target those who are actively seeking employment and want to be self-reliant.

Question 60

A competition or market state - Third Way

Answer 60

The third way also takes a different view of the state's function, with neo-revisionists promoting the concept of a competition (or market) state to develop the national workforce's skills and knowledge base. With its focus on social investment, the competition state emphasises the importance of education for improving a person's job prospects and boosting economic growth. This explains why an early New Labour government slogan was 'Education, education, education Although New Labour was electorally successful in 1997, 2001 and 2005, many socialists criticise third-way thinking for its lack of real socialist content (for example, watered down commitments to equality and redistribution of wealth). In their view, neo-revisionism was essentially a Labour rebranding exercise to make the party more attractive to middle-class voters and business interests following four consecutive general-election defeats. Growing disillusion with the third-way approach certainly helps to explain the election of an avowedly left-wing Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn, in 2015. Nevertheless, third-way ideas have influenced various left-of-centre parties, including the German SDP and the South African ANC. Furthermore, under New Labour, neo-revisionism introduced important measures that promoted social justice and improved the position of the most disadvantaged in society (such as educational maintenance grants, the minimum wage and family tax credits).

Question 61

Branch views of Human nature

Answer 61

Socialists have a positive view of human nature and regard people as social creatures who are co-operative, sociable and rational. From this perspective, human behaviour is socially determined and people naturally prefer to work together rather than compete against each other. This co-operative outlook enables humans to form connections (based on understanding, mutual support and respect), harness the capabilities of the whole community or society, and experience personal growth. Marxist socialists maintain that the true co-operative and communal instincts of humans can be liberated only by the removal of the exploitative and oppressive capitalist system and the creation of a communist society.

Question 62

Branch views of The State

Answer 62

In theory, Marxism regards the state as an instrument of class rule. Marxist socialists argue that, under capitalism, the ruling bourgeoisie use the state apparatus (such as the political and legal system) to maintain their dominance over the proletariat. In their view, the state will wither away once communism has established a classless equal society. However, in practice, Marxist and state socialist regimes have used a centralised state to organise most or all production and distribution, and control their populations. Social democrats, by contrast, argue that limited state intervention in social and economic affairs can safeguard the public and remedy the shortcomings of capitalism. Third-way supporters, or neo-revisionists, adopt a more sceptical attitude towards the state, asserting that 'top down' state intervention in economic and social matters is both inefficient and ineffective. For neo-revisionists, the state should focus on social investment in infrastructure and education to improve job opportunities and encourage self-reliance.

Question 63

Branch views of Society

Answer 63

Traditionally, socialists have seen society as being characterised mainly by class inequalities, economic divisions and significant disparities in property ownership. For example, Marxists argue that capitalist society is dominated by class conflict between the ruling bourgeoisie and the proletariat. In their view, only communism, with its commitment to classlessness and absolute equality, can deliver a stable and unified society. Social democrats tend to view society in more fluid terms. They accept that class inequalities exist, but also maintain that these social differences can be reduced through peaceful improvements, such as welfare and redistribution schemes. Social democrats also recognise that deindustrialisation and the rise of the service economy has made society increasingly 'middle class? Neo-revisionist thinking on society rejects the traditional socialist emphasis on class distinctions and inequality. Instead, the third-way model of society stresses harmony, consensus and social inclusion,

Question 64

Branch views of The economy

Answer 64

Most socialists call for some form of intervention or planning in economic affairs because they maintain that the profit-driven free market cannot allocate wealth and resources fairly. Marxists and state socialists advocate replacing capitalism with a centrally planned economy based on common ownership of the means of production. Under communism, Marxists argue, economic production will be determined solely by human need. In contrast, social democrats accept a degree of free-market capitalism, and favour a mixed economy of nationalised key industries and privately-owned enterprises Social democrats also endorse Keynesian interventionist techniques to regulate capitalism and maintain employment. In addition, they support welfare policies to redistribute wealth. Neo-revisionists readily accept the primacy of the free market in the economy since. in their view it is the most efficient system of production - the resulting economic growth benefits everyone and encourages desirable personal qualities such as responsibility. Third-way thinking also rejects state intervention in the economy on the grounds that it discourages investment and stifles entrepreneurial initiative.

Question 65

Historic materialism def

Answer 65

Marxist theory that the economic base the economic system) forms the superstructure (culture, politics, law, ideology, religion, art and social consciousness). • Historical materialism maintains that historical and social development can be explained in terms of economic and class factors. The economic system powerfully influences or 'conditions' all other aspects of society.

Question 66

Dialectic def

Answer 66

a process of development that occurs through the conflict between two opposing forces. in Marxism, class conflict creates internal contradictions within society, which drives historical change. Dialectical change is a process of development that occurs through the conflict or struggle between two cpposing forces. Marx and Engels thought that at each stage of human history, dialectical change is propelled by the struggle between exploiters and the exploited (for example, capitalists and workers). This process only ends with the establishment of a communist society.

Question 67

Class consciousness def

Answer 67

the self-understanding of social class that is a historical phenomenon, created out of collective struggle Class consciousness is needed for the oppressed to overthrow their oppressors. For example, under capitalism, before a socialist revolution can take place, the proletariat has to become a 'class for itself aware of its own interests and determined to pursue them.

Question 68

Karl Marx (1818-83) and Friedrich Engels (1820-95) key ideas and works

Answer 68

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are the most famous revolutionary socialists. Their works include The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867, 1885, 1894). For Marx and Engels, social class is central to socialism and underpins three key elements of Marxism: historical materialism, dialectical change and revolutionary class consciousness

Question 69

Karl Marx (1818-83) and Friedrich Engels (1820-95) key ideas and works

Answer 69

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are the most famous revolutionary socialists. Their works include The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867, 1885, 1894). For Marx and Engels, social class is central to socialism and underpins three key elements of Marxism: historical materialism, dialectical change and revolutionary class consciousness

Question 70

Marx and Engels key ideology terms

Answer 70

Class consciousness is needed for the oppressed to overthrow their oppressors. For example, under capitalism, before a socialist revolution can take place, the proletariat has to become a 'class for itself aware of its own interests and determined to pursue them.

Question 71

Marx and Engels on human nature

Answer 71

Like most socialists, Marx and Engels view humans as essentially social beings, whose behaviour and potential are influenced more by nurture than by nature. Humans are sociable rational and co-operative, capable of leading satisfying lives based on fulfilling work, where the conditions for tree creative production exist. Under capitalism, these conditions do not exist, so the individual cannot realise his or her true human potential. The solution, Marx contends, is the creation of a communist society that abolishes private property, class differences, the state apparatus and divisions between mental and physical labour. Freed from such constraints, the individual can become a fully developed person, engaging in many activities and achieving their potential through creative work in co-operation with others. This ideal stands in sharp contrast to the brutal and oppressive Marxist regimes of the 20th and 21st centuries.

Question 72

Beatrice Webb key ideas and works

Answer 72

Key ideas • The 'inevitability of gradualness'- establishing socialism peacefully by passing democratic reforms through existing parliamentary institutions. • The expansion of the state will deliver codialisit The daughter of an industrialist, Beatrice Webb was an early member of the Fabian Society. With her husband, Sidney Webb, she wrote a number of pro-socialist works, including A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain (1920), The Decay of Capitalist Civilisation (1923) and Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation? (1935).

Question 73

Webb’s changing views

Answer 73

At first, Webb opposed the idea of a working-class party, focusing instead on spreading evolutionary socialist ideas among leading liberals and conservatives. Her attitude to suffrage was just as elitist. She thought the average voter was limited, selfish and uninformed, so she rejected direct democracy and the 'self-interested' nature of workers' control. Representative democracy was preferable because it would lead to a skilled governing class subject to democratic constraints Webb and her husband Sidney believed that the expansion of the state was critical in order to deliver socialism - the 'economic side of democracy". They saw the gradual growth of state power as evidence that collectivism would bring in a new socialist age. For example, local authorities were increasingly providing utilities and amenities such as gas, public transport and parks. The expanding state had 'silently changed its character... from police power to housekeeping on a national scale, and would ensure the peaceful emergence of socialism. Webb emphasised that the state's ability to deliver socialism would depend heavily on highly trained specialists and administrators to organise society and the economy. Over time, municipal and state intervention would increase as more areas of life would need to be regulated and planned. The role of the disciplined elite would be to run the state to guide the mass of citizens to a Socialist State. Webb and her husband increasingly recognised that central state action would further the development of socialism. Webb's participation in the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws (1905-09) made her aware that problems such as unemployment had national rather than local characteristics. This belief in centralised state action, 'rational planning and bureaucratic direction led them, rather naively, to endorse Stalinist Russia in the 1930s. They claimed that their interest had been stimulated by the deliberate planning of all the nation's production, distribution and exchange, not for swelling the profit of the few but for increasing the consumption of the whole community:

Question 74

Webb’s ideas about Marxism

Answer 74

Webb rejected the Marxist theory of class struggle, endorsing the inevitability of gradualness. She thought that the new mass age of democratic politics would lead inevitably to policies to secure the interests of the working class. The move towards socialism could be speeded up by presenting reasoned arguments and painstaking research to show the efficiency of socialism compared to capitalism.

Question 75

Luxemburg key ideas and key works

Answer 75

Evolutionary socialism is not possible as capitalism is based on economic exploitation. • Struggle by the profetariat creates the class-consciousness needed to overthrow the capitalist state. Rosa Luxemburg was a Pol sh Marxist and revolutionary, and was regarded as the most prominent left-wing member of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). In a series of influential books, Luxemburg developed important critiques of evolutionary socialism and revisionism, and disagreed with Lenin over key features of Marxism In Social Reform or Revolution (1899) she argued that socialism could not be created gradually from within capitalism through a series of reforms. Instead it was essential for the proletariat to achieve a revolutionary conquest of political power for two key reasons. Any evolutionary or revisionist socialist strategy would leave the capitalist system of economic exploitation intact. Worker organisations would never be able to determine their wages or resolve the contradiction between social production and the private appropriation of wealth. Socialist parties would lose their sense of political purpose and the revolutionary instincts of the working class would be dampened. • An evolutionary or reformist socialist strategy could never smooth away the exploitation inherent in the capitalist economy, because the contradictions and crises of capitalism made its collapse inevitable. In The Accumulation of Copital (1913), Luxemburg said that the capitalist market could not absorb all the surplus value generated. By accessing less economically developed territories and markets, capitalist states effectively exported the capitalist system. Eventually, capitalism would run out of new territories and markets to exploit and the system would collapse.

Question 76

Luxembourg’s ideological conflict with Lenin

Answer 76

Luxemburg's views brough: her into direct conflict with the Bolshevik leader, Lenin. In Organizational Questions of Social Democracy (1904), Luxemburg rejected Lenin's argument that the workers had to be led by a small, rigidly centralised vanguard party in order to overthrow capitalism. In her view, a revolutionary party that demanded blind obedience would create an 'absolute dividing wall' between the leaders and the mass membership, Preventing workers from becoming 'free and independent directors' of society under socialism.

Question 77

Luxembourg on overthrowing Capitalist society

Answer 77

Luxemburg also maintained that struggle by the proletariat for reform and democracy was essential for the creation of the worker class-consciousness that would overthrow capitalist society. In The Mass Strike, the Political Party and the Trade Unions (1906) she argued that this consciousness would develop naturally from within the workers themselves. Proletarian discontent against state control would erupt in numerous unsuccessful and successful strikes, culminating in a spontanecus mass strike, which would radicalise the workers and bring about a socialist revolution

Question 78

Crosland key ideas and works

Answer 78

• The inherent contradictions in capitalism. . State-managed capitalism. Crosland was the leading post-war revisionist theorist in British socialism and had a major influence on the Labour Party. In his 1956 book The Future of Socialism, Crosland claimed that capitalism had radically changed and no longer resembled an economic system based on inherent contradictions, as described by Marx. Modern capitalism lacked the internal tensions to drive social change or bring Anthony Crosland: Marx has little or nothing to offer the contemporarv socialist. about revolution. For Crosland, this was in part due to the extension of democracy, the growth of industrial bargaining and the dispersal of business ownership. Decision-making in business was now in the hands of professional managers, key industries had been nationalised and a comprehensive welfare state had been established. Now governments pursuing Keynesian economics could maintain high employment, ensure low inflation and promote continuous growth. Rather than collapsing, capitalism had produced rising living standards.

Question 79

Crosland on aim of socialism

Answer 79

Crosland argued that the main aim of socialism now was to manage capitalism to deliver greater social equality and social justice, with more egalitarian distribution of rewards, status and privileges, and no class barriers.

Question 80

Crosland’s 4 justifications for equality

Answer 80

•Economic efficiency - there was no clear relationship between an individual's status and rewards and the importance of their economic function. • Creation of a more communitarian society - existing inequalities created resentments, which had an adverse effect on economic progress. • The injustice of rewarding talents and abilities - these were largely due to nature and nurture, not individual responsibility. • The need for social justice - Crosland called this 'democratic equality and argued that socialism had to move beyond equality of opportunity.

Question 81

Crosland’s views on the economy

Answer 81

Crosland's more egalitarian society depended on high levels of government spending on welfare services and the redistribution of income and wealth. He was convinced that Keynesian demand-management of a mixed economy, with some nationalised industries in a system based on private ownership, was the best way to generate sustained economic growth. Economic expansion would provide the government with funds for welfare and social • spending to improve life for those at the bottom of society, while enabling the more affluent to preserve their standard of living.

Question 82

Crosland’s views on education

Answer 82

Another important part of Crosland's revisionist socialism centred on his call for the development of comprehensive secondary education and the expansion of higher education, where children of all abilities and backgrounds would share similar educational experiences. As Education Secretary (1965-67), Crosland issued the famous Department of Education and Science circular 10/65, inviting all education authorities in England and Wales to submit plans for the reform of secondary education on comprehensive lines. He reportedly said to his wife 'If it's the last thing I do I'm going to destroy every grammar school in England and Wales.

Question 83

Giddens key ideas and works

Answer 83

•The 'third way - a new political approach to social democracy. .The rejection of state intervention. Anthony Giddens, the British sociologist and social theorist, was arguably the most important intellectual figure in the development of the 'third way' Widely seen as Tony Blair's 'favourite academic, Giddens influenced the political direction taken by the US Clinton administration and the New Labour government in the UK In his book, The Third Way: The Renewal of Sociol Democracy (1998), Giddens argued for a new political approach that drew on the strengths of the social democratic and neo-liberal free-market traditions while avoiding their weaknesses. Two key themes were: the rejection of state intervention and acceptance of the free market in the economy, with the emphasis on equality of opportunity over equality, and responsibility and community over class conflict the role of the state in social investment in infrastructure and education, not economic and social engineering.

Question 84

Giddens view of markets

Answer 84

According to Giddens, by the late 20th century social democracy had to be modernised due to the impact of globalisation, the rise of the new knowledge economy and the growth of more individualistic aspirations. He argued that 'top down' state intervention was now both inefficient and ineffective. The left should 'get comfortable with the markets' because the free-market economy was not only the most efficient system of production (and economic growth would benefit everyone) but also encouraged personal qualities such as responsibility. Giddens tempered this view by stressing that, for this market-driven system to be fair, everyone needed an equal opportunity to better themselves through their ability and effort. Nevertheless. he called for government action to control the widening inequalities of outcome that he saw as an inevitable consequence. In particular, he rejected the idea that the success or failure of one generation should increase or restrict the opportunities of the next. Giddens also stressed the importance of community and responsibility, partly to offset the negative effects of the free market (such as excessive materialism and competitive individualism), but also to reflect the declining importance of hierarchy and class conflict in modern Britain. Community was 'fundamental to the new politics' of the third way because it promoted social cohesion, shared values, and individual and social responsibility.

Question 85

Giddens view on extensive state intervention

Answer 85

Giddens rejected the economic and social engineering that underpinned the extensive state-welfare and wealth-redistribution programmes of previous social-democratic governments. This form of state intervention, he argued, encouraged a culture of dependency, and the tax revenues required discouraged the investment and entrepreneurial effort needed to sustain a competitive economy. Instead, Giddens called for a 'social investment' state - essentially a 'contract between the government and the citizen. The state, benefiting from the economic growth generated by the free market, had a responsibility to invest in the infrastructure of society (such as education, training, subsidised employment and expert advice) to provide better job opportunities. In return, people had a duty to take advantage of what was on offer, a responsibility to help themselves and an obligation not to settle for a life on benefits.

Question 86

Who are the socialist key thinkers?

Answer 86

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Beatrice Webb Rosa Luxemburg Anthony Crosland Anthony Giddens

Question 87

Socialism Core Principles

Answer 87

Collectivism Common Humanity Equality Social Class Workers’ control Common Ownership

Question 88

Socialism Branches

Answer 88

Third Way Revolutionary Socialism Social Democracy