Socialism

Question 1

Origins of socialism

Answer 1

• Early days of the Enlightenment ->
groups and thinkers who doubted whether the idea of private property was consistent with the other ideals of liberalism
• They argued that property should be owned in common and argued that private property led to some individuals being able to amass huge amounts of property while
others had none – undermining the idea of equality, limiting the freedom of those without property
• The Industrial Revolution brought huge social, economic, cultural, technological and demographic changes which was seen as a challenge to liberal ideology – liberalism was seen by some as incapable of solving the problems caused by industrialisation
• Socialism is a direct and explicit challenge to capitalism and the capitalist economy

Question 2

Socialism and human nature

Answer 2

• there is no individual without the society, and individuals are shaped and moulded by the societies around them
• Human nature is malleable and plastic – there is no universal
or predetermined human nature, and how humans are depends on what society is like
• Socialists would argue that if humans have a “natural” state it is to be cooperative, collaborative, fraternal and altruistic and if human nature is determined by society, then changing society will change the nature of individuals within that society as well
• Thus socialists take an optimistic view of human nature and human potential – we can make individuals better people by making their society a better society

Question 3

Socialism and society/social class

Answer 3

• society is shaped by larger, impersonal forces
• Marx and Engels argue that the way a society distributes
economic resources has a crucial impact on the form of that society
• social class is one of the most, if not the most, important factor in shaping both societies and individual lives
• major consequence of the Industrial Revolution was the emergence of distinct social classes based on employment and income
• Power is concentrated in the hands of the upper class and denied to the lower classes
• For most socialist the ideal society is one in which class differences are eliminated entirely (communism)

Question 4

Socialism and equality

Answer 4

• foundational equality – all human beings are inherently of equal value and society should reflect this
• while differences in social class exist, true equality is impossible to achieve
• argue for equality of outcome – greater similarity in people’s material resources and material circumstances
• Class divisions undermine fraternity, cooperation and solidarity and breed greed,
hatred, envy and division

Question 5

What are the principles that socialist views of the economy are based on?

Answer 5

➢ Liberty and equality of opportunity are impossible while
distinctions between social classes exist
➢ Social classes are determined by the economic system underpinning society
➢ Therefore, we cannot overcome inequality in society without
reforming the structure of the economic system

Question 6

Socialism and the economy

Answer 6

• strongly opposed to capitalism and the idea of an economic system based on private property
• capitalist system undermines cooperation and community and encourages egotism, competitiveness, and conflict
• capitalism naturally generates economic inequality, which is
incompatible with socialism’s egalitarian aim

Question 7

Socialist solutions to capitalism

Answer 7

• propose alternatives to capitalism in which property is commonly owned rather than privately owned
• Here, society as a whole “owns” property collectively, rather than individuals or companies. In practice this is usually synonymous with state ownership
• focus on redistribution of resources – transferring wealth
and resources out of the hands of the few and into the hands of the
many

Question 8

What two fundamental principles are socialist economic principles based on?

Answer 8

1. A complete rejection of laissez-faire capitalism: socialists
   believe that an economy with minimal state interference will only
   exacerbate the unfairness, social injustice, and inequalities
   presented by the capitalist system
2. A collectivist approach to the economy: socialists favour
   economic policies that focus on the needs of society as a whole,
   rather than on the needs of individuals

Question 9

What are examples of collectivist economic policies?

Answer 9

• Progressive taxation: tax systems where the wealthier pay much more in tax than the poor
• Progressive spending: public spending is focused on improving the lives of the most vulnerable/least fortunate in society
• Extensive public services: the state uses its wealth to guarantee key public services (healthcare, education, transport, housing, etc)
• Regulation of capitalism: strict laws and regulations limiting what businesses can do and
protecting workers from exploitation (minimum wage, health and safety laws, maximum
working hours, mandatory holidays, etc)
• State ownership (nationalisation) of industry: e.g. Clause IV of the Labour Party constitution, the nationalisation of steel, coal, rail industries in 1945

Question 10

Socialism and the state

Answer 10

• only a strong state can effectively
redistribute wealth, bring about equality and justice, and limit the power of capital
• enlarged and extensive - it must be to fulfil all of its duties under socialism
• power should be redistributed
throughout society
• reject the idea of an autocratic, monarchical state and rule by a small hereditary elite
• advocate for government “by the people” and thus (in theory) favour democracy (in practice this varies a lot from state to state)

Question 11

Marx historical context

Answer 11

• Born the son of a wealthy lawyer in Trier, in the Kingdom of
Prussia
• While at university, Marx was introduced to liberal ideology and became heavily influenced by the work of G.W.F Hegel
• He began writing journalism, poetry, novels and essays while still a student, and became known for his radical politics
• His revolutionary political views got him in trouble with the authorities; his work was banned in Prussia and he was put under surveillance by the Prussian king’s secret police
• He went into exile, travelling to Paris, Brussels, and eventually London
• He supported himself and his family by writing for various newspapers – but frequently lived in poverty, and relied on his wealthier friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels for financial support

Question 12

Engels historical context

Answer 12

• Friedrich Engels was born into a wealthy Prussian family that owned textiles mills in both Prussia and England
• When he was 22, Engels’ parents sent him to Manchester to manage the family’s cotton mills there, hoping that the responsibility would temper his radical beliefs
• The opposite happened – Engels was horrified by the grim social conditions in England, the slums that the working class lived in and the gruelling nature of their
work
• He began writing works criticising the political, economic and social
consequences of the Industrial Revolution

Question 13

Hegelian dialect

Answer 13

• Hegel argued that history progressed in a series of stages, moving towards an inevitable and final destination
• Within each historical stage there was a “clash of ideas” – which Hegel
referred to as the dialectic which occurs when the “official” account of how society works – the ideology
of the ruling class – no longer corresponded with the ideas or perceptions of the majority, due to inherent contradictions and tensions within it
• This clash of ideas then leads to the emergence of new ideas, which become the dominant ideas of society and begin a new “stage” of history
• Hegel argued that with each “cycle”, human beings became more rational and had a greater understanding of themselves and the world

Question 14

Marx and Engels and the Hegelian Dialect

Answer 14

• Marx and Engels agreed with Hegel’s idea of the dialectic and the process of history, but they thought that it had a material basis rather than an intellectual basis and believed in a clash of economic
systems
• According to Marx and Engels, economic forces and modes of production determined everything else about society – human nature, the nature of society, politics, religion, etc
• In Marx and Engels’ dialectic, one class becomes economically dominant, and exploits the other
classes
• But this system is fundamentally unstable – the contradictions and problems inherent in the economic
system eventually lead to it breaking down
• This then leads to alienation and resentment among the workers, who rise up and destroy both the ruling class and the system they believe in, replacing it with a new economic system
• They argued that this same process had already happened when capitalism replaced feudalism in Europe
• This approach to understanding history and politics is known as historical materialism

Question 15

Marx and Engels key concepts

Answer 15

• Humans are economic and social beings – their nature is determined by society and economy
• Economic forces (modes of production) are the basis for all of society: every other aspect of society is a result of its underlying economic structure
• Social class is central to understanding society, and conflict between classes is inevitable and drives historical development
• Capitalism is inherently unstable and will eventually fall apart due to its own contradictions
• Any capitalist state serves the interests of the wealthy, so there is no point in socialist parties competing in elections – the ruling class will never allow meaningful change to be enacted through the state
• Therefore, revolution is essential – it is necessary to “smash” capitalism with revolutionary violence to
build a new and better society and this revolution must be international in character: “workers of the world unite – you have nothing to lose
but your chains”

Question 16

Socialism vs communism

Answer 16

• Marx and Engels believed that after the revolution, a “dictatorship of the proletariat” would arise and gradually obliterate all trace of the liberal-capitalist order
• Once the capitalist system had been demolished entirely, a communist society based
on collective ownership would arise, in which the state was no longer necessary and which would be so perfect that society could progress no further – the “end of history”
• According to Marx, Engels, and other Marxists/fundamentalist socialists, socialism is an
interim state in between capitalism and communism - but not an end in itself
• No true communist society has ever existed. All “communist” countries are socialist
countries (supposedly) working to achieve communism

Question 17

Marxism-Leninism

Answer 17

• Lenin led the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 and became leader of the world’s first revolutionary socialist state, the USSR
• Lenin argued maybe less developed societies are
better equipped for revolutionary socialism than advanced capitalist ones (contrary to Marx’s belief) as the proletariat in these
countries have not been as
indoctrinated into capitalism
• Lenin believed there needed to be a revolutionary vanguard – an elite who will lead the revolution, educate the masses on socialist
values, and help steer the
country until it is ready for
true socialism

Question 18

Stalinism

Answer 18

• Stalin’s rule over the Soviet Union was highly authoritarian and dictatorial, marked by political
purges, forced resettlement of entire ethnic groups, famine as a result of the forced collectivisation of agriculture
• He made use of secret police, execution without trial, imprisonment in gulags (prison
camps), and zero tolerance for political dissent as tools of statecraft – all in the name of advancing socialist causes
• He rejected Marx’s internationalist focus and advocated instead for “socialism in one country” or “socialist nationalism”

Question 22

Luxemburg historical context

Answer 22

• Became involved in radical politics as a teen; forced to flee political
persecution in Poland
• Fled to Switzerland, where she studied economics at the University of Zurich – one of the first women in the world to receive an economics PhD
• Marxist, but very critical of Marxism-Leninism
• Briefly returned to Poland in 1905, where she took part in a failed
nationalist uprising against the Russian Empire. Arrested but managed to escape and fled to Germany where she joined the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), a socialist party that
won some seats in the German Bundestag
• Left the SDP in 1914 in protest of the party’s pro-war views (WW1)
and co-founded the Spartacus League and the German Communist Party (KPD), revolutionary socialist parties
• One of the leaders of the Spartacist Uprising in 1919 – an attempt to overthrow the German government and replace it with a revolutionary socialist government. Uprising crushed by right-wing Freikorps paramilitaries. Luxemburg was captured and executed by the Freikorps

Question 23

Luxemburg key concepts

Answer 23

• Agreed with Marx’s views on capitalism and the need for revolution
• Participated in elections (SDP & KDP)– agreed that liberal democracy would never allow capitalism to be abolished and violent revolution was necessary, but argued that taking part in democratic processes was a good way to spread socialist messages to the masses
• Rejected Lenin’s argument that there needed to be a “revolutionary vanguard” leading a “dictatorship of the proletariat”
• Argued that a socialist state must be democratic and open, with space for political expression and debate
• International focus – “socialism in one country” was doomed to fail, only world revolution could truly bring about an end to capitalism

Question 24

Beatrix

Answer 24

• Most influential form of fundamentalist socialism in the UK and Western Europe
• Capitalism must eventually be dismantled, but disagree that violent revolution is necessary to do this
• They argue for an evolutionary rather than revolutionary approach (gradualism)

Question 25

Beatrice Webb historical context

Answer 25

• Sociologist, economist, social reformer & feminist • Active and influential member of the Fabian Society and were founding members of the Labour Party in 1918, contributing significantly to writing the Labour Party constitution – particularly Clause IV • Supportive of trade unionism and cooperative movements • Rejected revolutionary socialism, highly critical of Marxism-Leninism • One of the founders of the London School of Economics (LSE)

Question 26

Beatrice Webb key concepts

Answer 26

• Gradualism – society should slowly and gradually progress towards socialism via “evolutionary, not revolutionary” means • A strong trade union movement and extensive government intervention in the economy (nationalisation) could be used to limit the negative impacts of capitalism • Socialism is inevitable; society will gradually and slowly evolve beyond capitalism • Violent revolution is not necessary and counter-productive – produces tyrannical governments

Question 27

Stages of evolutionary socialism

Answer 27

1. Democratic socialist parties campaign peacefully & gain the support of voter 2. The majority of voters realise that capitalism does not help them 3. The majority inevitably elect socialist governments 4. Democratic socialist governments gradually replace private businesses with nationalised ones 5. Voters realise that their lives are better under socialism and keep voting for socialist governments 6. Socialism becomes dominant ideology and capitalism disappears

Question 28

Democratic socialism and the Labour Party

Answer 28

• The 1945 Labour Government -> example of democratic socialism in action • Following a landslide electoral victory, Attlee’s Labour government instituted sweeping reforms like the NHS, all seen as promoting progress to a fairer, post-capitalist society within a democratic framework

Question 29

Tony Benn

Answer 29

• advocated further for democratic socialism from within the Labour Party • argued that the failures of the Wilson/Callaghan governments proved that socialist goals were incompatible with a mainly capitalist economy, and that Labour needed to be more radical when in power to achieve socialism • argued ways to do this were abolishing HoL for example

Question 30

Euro-communism

Answer 30

• There was a parallel democratic socialist movement that emerged in Europe after the war, particularly in France and Italy • “Euro-Communists” were horrified by the violence and oppression seen in the USSR and China and rejected violent revolution in favour of democratic routes to socialism • Had some electoral success – e.g French Communist Party (PCF) was in power in the 1980s, and in Italy George Napolitano of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) was president 2006 – 2015

Question 31

Gramsci key concepts

Answer 31

• A significant influence on the development of Euro-Communism • Argued one of the reasons it was so hard to overcome capitalism was because the ruling capitalist class, and capitalism as a system, exercised cultural hegemony • Capitalism determines the culture of society, which means that all individuals in that society are constantly indoctrinated into capitalist beliefs and values • argued that to counter-act this socialists had to build a counter- culture – art, literature, music, entertainment, and philosophy that actively counteracted the dominant capitalist culture • He argued for the need for a “cultural vanguard” of writers and artists who would use their art to spread socialist ideas to the masses so that they were ready for socialism • This idea was very influential on both high and low culture in the West (especially Europe) between 1945- 1980s

Question 32

Neo-Marxism

Answer 32

• As the 20th century continued, some socialist thinkers began to doubt whether democratic socialism could be sufficient to overturn capitalism • Following on from Gramsci’s ideas on cultural hegemony, they argued that capitalism was so culturally and psychologically dominant that gradual and evolutionary reforms would inevitably fail • So they argued that Marx was right – only violent revolution could lead to the end of capitalism

Question 33

Neo-Marxism minor thinkers

Answer 33

• The Frankfurt School were a group of Marxist theorists who all worked at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany • Herbert Marcuse, Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Jurgen Habermas

Question 34

What is revisionist socialism?

Answer 34

• Revisionists argue that capitalism and socialism can coexist • Capitalist economic growth drives development and leads to improved living standards for the working class • By using Keynesian economic methods, socialist governments could ensure stable economic growth and eliminate the negative impacts of capitalism (depressions, unemployment) • The wealth generated by capitalism could be used to fund better public services and a more extensive welfare state, further improving the lives of the working class

Question 35

Anthony Crosland historical context

Answer 35

• WWII: Fought in Italy and France as a parachute trooper, took part in the D-Day landings • Became an MP in 1950, rose up through the ranks of the Labour Party • Held several Cabinet positions in the Wilson & Callaghan governments, including Secretary of State for Trade, Secretary of State for Education, and Secretary of State for the Environment • As Education Secretary, developed the Comprehensive Schools system • Leading figure of the right wing of the Labour Party

Question 36

Anthony Crosland key concepts

Answer 36

• Keynesian economics now meant that capitalism could be managed and harnessed to improve the lives of the working class • Steady economic growth would fund the expansions of the welfare state • Nationalisation no longer necessary – mixed economy was better suited for achieving socialist aims • The goal of a socialist government was not full public ownership of industry, but rather more public spending and better public services (funded by capitalist economic growth) • Social class had changed and become more complex than Marx had foreseen – Marxist focus on class conflict was outdated • Less focused on equality of outcome, very focused on equality of opportunity • Reforming the education system would help to reduce class inequalities, improving equality of opportunity • Eurosceptic – socialist goals required national governments to control their own economic policies, not surrender sovereignty to an international organisation

Question 37

What is neo-revisionism?

Answer 37

• The end of the 20th century was a challenging time for both fundamentalist socialism and classical revisionist socialism • The collapse of the USSR and the neoliberal economic reforms in China were seen by many as evidence that fundamentalist socialism had been “defeated” as an ideology • the economic problems of the 1970s, the collapse of the post-war consensus, and the global spread of neoliberal economic ideas were all seen as evidence that Keynesian economics was no longer credible – which was a problem for classical revisionism, which was based on Keynesian economic ideas • So, a new form of socialism was now needed for the 21st century – “The Third Way” or “Neo-revisionism”

Question 38

Anthony Giddens historical context

Answer 38

• Most known as a sociologist - one of the most cited sociologists in the world • Served as Director of the London School of Economics from 1996 to 2003 • Advocated for “The Third Way” – a revised form of socialism that accepted neoliberal economic realities • Key theoretical inspiration for Tony Blair and Gordon Brown’s New Labour • Pro-European – supporter of the European union and further economic integration with Europe

Question 39

Anthony Giddens key concepts

Answer 39

• Neoliberal free-market capitalism has an incredible capacity to empower individuals • Rather than resisting neoliberalism, modern socialists should “go with the flow” and encourage privatisation and deregulation – this would boost economic growth, which would in turn boost tax revenue that could then be spent on improving public services and welfare • Neoliberal economic forces have created a more individualistic culture and individualised human nature – socialists should recognise this rather than fighting against it • Nationalisation should be reversed; the state should instead focus investment on projects like infrastructure and education, which would improve living standards for the working class while also benefiting the economy • Equality of outcome is not desirable – it indicates slower growth, and therefore less taxes, which hurts the state’s ability provide services. Equality of opportunity is more important • Cultural and political equality (racial, gender, sexual equality) – ensuring this should be a key goal of socialist governments

Question 40

Consistencies within socialism regarding society

Answer 40

• society is fundamental to human existence – societies make individuals, not the other way around • All socialists believe that society should be improved to be more equal

Question 41

Tensions within socialism regarding society

Answer 41

• Revolutionary socialists believe that existing capitalist society is “sick” and only revolutionary violence can bring about the necessary social change • Democratic socialists believe that society can be gradually improved through democratic means as capitalism is slowly dismantled • Revisionist socialists believe that society can be gradually improved through democratic means, and that capitalism is both necessary and beneficial for this process

Question 42

Tensions within socialism regarding the economy

Answer 42

• Fundamentalist socialists believe that socialism is incompatible with a capitalist economy • Revolutionary socialists believe that capitalism should be “smashed” with a violent revolution and replaced with a non-capitalist economy as swiftly as possible • Democratic socialists believe that capitalism should be slowly and gradually dismantled by democratically elected socialist governments • Classical revisionists believe that socialism and capitalism are compatible, but the economy should be mixed and managed using Keynesian economic methods • Neo-revisionists believe that socialism and capitalism are compatible, and that the economy should be neoliberal (privatised and deregulated) to produce more tax revenue and thus fund higher spending

Question 43

Consistencies within socialism regarding the state

Answer 43

A strong and extensive state is vital for the promotion of socialist values

Question 44

Tensions within socialism regarding the state

Answer 44

• Marxists believe that the existing capitalist state must be destroyed by revolution and replaced with a dictatorship of the proletariat/revolutionary vanguard (Marxist-Leninism) or direct- democratic workers’ councils (Luxemburg) • Democratic socialists believe that democratically elected socialist governments can gradually dismantle capitalism • Revisionist socialists believe that democratically elected socialist governments can use the wealth generated by capitalism to enlarge and enhance the welfare state

Question 45

Consistencies within socialism regarding human nature

Answer 45

All socialists believe that human nature is “plastic” and “malleable” – shaped by social and economic forces

Question 46

Tensions within socialism regarding human nature

Answer 46

• Fundamentalist socialists argue that capitalism has a profoundly negative impact on human nature • Revisionist socialists argue that human nature can still be shaped in positive ways under capitalism

Question 47

The collapse of the USSR & the crisis of revolutionary socialism

Answer 47

• At the beginning of the 21st century, many believed that socialism was a redundant ideology • The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of its 70-year experiment in revolutionary socialism • The formerly socialist states of the Eastern Bloc rapidly adopted liberal capitalist models of statehood • China under Deng Xiaoping and Hu Jintao embraced neo-liberal economic reforms, opening up its borders for foreign investment, free trade, and privatised industry • All this was seen as evidence that Marx-inspired revolutionary socialism was truly dead

Question 48

Neo-revisionism, Tony Blair and the “end” of socialism in Britain?

Answer 48

• In the UK, the neo-revisionism advocated by theorists like Anthony Giddens and put into practice by Tony Blair’s New Labour government was seen by many as a complete betrayal of socialist principles – socialist in name only, indistinguishable in practice from liberalism • The word “socialism” does not even appear in any Labour Manifesto from 1997 to 2010

Question 49

The triumph of individualism

Answer 49

• Some argued that the increasingly individualistic society engendered by neoliberalism undermined the sense of community and collective identity needed for socialism to flourish • Many people in the Western world (especially in Britain) no loner strongly identified with their social class– undermining support for socialism (class dealignment) • In the UK, for instance, trade union membership is in steep decline – only 6.25 million people were trade union members in 2023, compared to 13.2 million in 1979

Question 50

Cultural hegemony

Answer 50

In Western societies, the values of capitalism – individualism, consumerism, an emphasis on the accumulation of wealth and property, etc- seem to be dominant among all social classes, suggesting that Gramsci’s idea of cultural hegemony is correct

Question 51

The financial crash and the resurgence of socialism

Answer 51

• Much as the 2007-2008 financial crisis led to a re-evaluation of liberalism and a resurgence in conservativism, it also led to a resurgence of socialism • Gordon Brown’s government was forced to back-pedal on neoliberal economic ideas and institute more stringent regulations on capitalism, even bringing some banks back under state control (re-nationalisation) • In Europe, the punishing austerity measures put in place as a response to the financial crisis made many question the value of neoliberal economics and free-market ideology and led to electoral victories for democratic socialist parties, such as Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain

Question 52

Corbynism

Answer 52

• In the UK, Jeremy Corbyn became the official leader of the opposition in 2015, winning two Labour leadership campaigns on a clearly socialist platform – though this did not translate to electoral success with the general public in 2019 • Nonetheless, Corbyn’s rise to leadership indicates that there is still some strong support for traditional socialist values in Britain

Question 53

Socialism in Western Europe

Answer 53

• In France and Germany, socialist parties have seen a resurgence in popularity as a response to the rise of the far right – far left parties are seen as providing more effective responses to the Right than moderate/centrist parties E.G. La France Insoumise in France and Die Linke in Germany

Question 54

Socialism in the USA

Answer 54

• Even in the USA, historically extremely hostile to socialism, socialist politicians have seen more successes than ever before • The Democratic Socialists for America (most famously Alexandra Ocasio-Cortez) have emerged as an influential faction within the Democratic Party • Socialist senator Bernie Sanders made a plausible attempt at becoming the Democratic Party’s Presidential nominee in 2016

Question 55

China under Xi Jinping: a return to socialism?

Answer 55

• Xi Jinping, leader of the Chinese Communist Party and President for life of China, has instituted several reforms that appear to reverse some of the neoliberal reforms of previous governments, returning China to more socialist values • His “Common Prosperity” policies include cracking down on China’s tech giants, stricter regulations on trade and industry, higher taxes on big companies and the wealthy, more centralised state control of the economy, and making education more equal by banning private tutors

Question 56

Marx and Engels on human nature

Answer 56

Human nature, originally fraternal and altruistic, has been contaminated by capitalism, instilling the 'false consciousness' of bourgeois values. Revolutionary socialism, however, will repair this.

Question 57

Marx and Engels on the state

Answer 57

The existing liberal-bourgeois state is a tool of the dominant capitalist class; it must be destroyed by revolution and replaced by a new socialist state: the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Question 58

Marx and Engels on society

Answer 58

Capitalist society is sickeningly, yet fatally, defined by class interests and class conflict. A communist society will be the perfect end of history.

Question 59

Marx and Engels on the economy

Answer 59

Capitalism is corrupt, inefficient and ultimately self-destructive. It should - and will - be replaced by an economy based on collective ownership.

Question 60

Luxemburg on human nature

Answer 60

Human nature has not been damaged to the extent Marx alleged. Fraternity and altruism still flourish in working-class communities punished by capitalist economics.

Question 61

Luxemburg on the state

Answer 61

The existing capitalist state must be destroyed by revolution, but one arising from strike action. The replacement state should be a genuine democracy, complete with free speech and free elections.

Question 62

Luxemburg on society

Answer 62

Capitalist society is class-ridden and morally indefensible, yet alternative societies, or sub-cultures, exist within downtrodden proletarian communities.

Question 63

Luxemburg on the economy

Answer 63

Capitalism is more resilient than Marx allowed. Its necessary destruction, and replacement by an economy based on workers' control, y require determination and solidarity among the proletariat.

Question 64

Webb on human nature

Answer 64

The damage inflicted by capitalism upon the human psyche will only be made worse by violent revolution. Humanity needs to be guided back, gradually, to its original, cooperative condition.

Question 65

Webb on the state

Answer 65

If harnessed to universal suffrage, the existing state could be used for a gradual transition to socialism.

Question 66

Webb on society

Answer 66

The poverty and inequalities of a capitalist society continue to depress human potential while fostering regressive competition.

Question 67

Webb on the economy

Answer 67

A chaotic capitalist economy will gradually be replaced by one which gives workers the full fruits of their labour, based upon common ownership of the means of production.

Question 68

Crosland on human nature

Answer 68

Human nature has a powerful sense of 'fairness' and an innate objection to huge inequalities of outcome.

Question 69

Crosland on the state

Answer 69

Democratic socialist governments (for example, Labour 1945-51) prove that the existing state can be used to effect radical, socialist change.

Question 70

Crosland on society

Answer 70

Society is increasingly complicated, altered by the emergence of new social groups comprising 'meritocratic' managers and 'classless' technocrats.

Question 71

Crosland on the economy

Answer 71

A mixed economy, underpinned by limited public ownership and Keynesian capitalism, will finance the greater public spending necessary to secure equality.

Question 72

Giddens on human nature

Answer 72

Human nature has been shaped by changing socioeconomic conditions. The pro-fairness instinct is still present, but it now competes with a sharpened sense of individual aspiration.

Question 73

Giddens on the state

Answer 73

The existing liberal state should be improved, redistributing and decentralising political power while encouraging greater political participation.

Question 74

Giddens on society

Answer 74

Society has undergone embourgeoisement - egalitarians must harness, rather than deny, these forces.

Question 75

Giddens on the economy

Answer 75

A neo-liberal economy, propelled by privatisation and deregulation, will provide huge tax yields. This will finance huge increases in public spending, which will secure greater equality of opportunity.

Question 78

Marx key texts

Answer 78

The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867)

Question 79

Engels key text

Answer 79

The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845)

Question 80

Lenin key text

Answer 80

What is to be done? (1902)

Question 81

Rosa Luxemburg key texts

Answer 81

• Social Reform or Revolution? (1900) • The Accumulation of Capital (1913)

Question 82

Beatrice Webb key texts

Answer 82

• The Cooperative Movement in Great Britain (1891) • Industrial Democracy (1897)

Question 83

Tony Benn key text

Answer 83

Arguments for Socialism (1980)

Question 84

Gramsci key text

Answer 84

The Prison Notebooks (1947)

Question 85

Anthony Crosland key texts

Answer 85

• The Future of Socialism (1956) • The Conservative Enemy (1962) • Socialism Now (1974)

Question 86

Anthony Giddens key texts

Answer 86

• Beyond Left and Right (1994) • The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy (1998)