Sociocultural Approach Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
Social Identity Theory
- Outline the general theory
A
Refers to the way someone thinks about themselves and evaluates themselves in relation to their ‘in-group’ and helps them gain a sense of identity through their membership
2
Q
Social Categorisation
A
Categorising people into either in-groups or out-groups based on their characteristics and similarities to a certain group
3
Q
Social Identification
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Using characteristics of ‘in-group’ to define our individual characteristics and often identify only the positive qualities as we want to maintain a positive self-concept to increase self-esteem
4
Q
Social Comparison
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Identifying positive characteristics and seeing the ‘out-groups’ as having negative characteristics.
- Leads to intergroup discrimination in order for us to uphold a positive social identity by seeing your group as ‘better’
- The positives of in-group are overestimated and the negatives of out-groups are intensified increasing disparity
5
Q
Tajfel (Aim)
A
To investigate if intergroup discrimination would take place without any prior prejudice
6
Q
Method (Tajfel)
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- 48 boys randomly divided into two group (14-15 years from UK)
- False dividing of groups as boys perceived they were grouped according to how they rated 12 painting but RANDOMLY allocated
- Groups were required to allocate points where they would be converted into cash
- – Condition 1: simple division of points
- – Condition 2: If group 1 chose highest no. of points, group 2 would get more than G1 (19-25) but if G1 chose the least no. of points, G2 would get less than G1 (7-1)
7
Q
Results (Tajfel)
A
- Condition 1: favoured in-group > out-group allocating themselves more points
- Condition 2: Groups were willing to sacrifice a big win for a small loss as they maximised the point difference to disadvantage the out-group (goal changed from highest reward to beating out-group)
8
Q
Conclusion (Tajfel)
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- Even simplest conditions were enough to generate in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination despite minimal shared characteristics
9
Q
Evaluation (Tajfel)
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- High level of control: high internal validity to have confidence in cause-effect
- Artificiality of the task: points given no context, low ecological validity so can’t generalise the same will happen in real world
- Demand characteristics: boys perceived to think they have similarities, teenagers so might have thought goal was to win
- Sampling bias: same age and birthplace so increased chance of unaccounted similarities and cannot be generalised
10
Q
Dunham (Aim)
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Whether in-group effects are evident from a young age
11
Q
Method (Dunham)
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- 33 Ps (19F and 14M) with 79% European/American and average age 5.4 years
- Each child randomly allocated red or blue by choosing a coin and wore their corresponding coloured shirt
- Stimuli involved 8 head to shoulder photos of E/A children of similar attractiveness wearing either R/B
- Ps seated in front of computer and taken through tests:
- – Attitude: expressing like/dislike for children in photos
- – Coin allocation: stimuli and gender group memberships were manipulated to have even distribution of gender across R/B and Ps had to distribute coins between groups
- – Behavioural attribution: given behaviour either (+) or (-) Ps had to decide who had done it
12
Q
Results (Dunham)
A
- In all 3 tasks, Ps showed significant preference for own gender
- – Attitude task: girls rate own gender 2.2 points > boys and boys rated 0.3 higher > girls
- In all 3 tasks, Ps preferred their ‘in-group’ R/B
- – Attitude task: mean in-group rating of 4.3 and out-group rating of 3.8
BUT gender was more statistically significant than in-group rating
13
Q
Conclusion (Dunham)
A
In young children, minimal in-groups are weaker organisers than gender. This reinforces the importance of gender as an organiser of social relations.
- Also suggests that nature of in-group biases are pre-programmed in us as young children are not as exposed to prejudice or discrimination (gender played a larger role as it is a strong part of identity)
14
Q
Evaluation (Dunham)
A
- European and American background gives sample bias
- Low ecological validity
- Potential external variables not accounted for since the girls rated themselves much higher against boys while boys only rated themselves slightly higher than girls suggesting the salience of gender as an identity is much stronger in girls
15
Q
Critical Thinking of Social Identity Theory
A
- Context may play an important role in the extremity/existence of in-group preference (Ellemers et al argues that social context mitigates with research showing psychology student would compare themselves favourably with physics students but unfavourably with art students when comparing creativity. Thus, social context rather than group membership that instils positive/negative social identity.
- Self-Esteem Hypothesis: low self esteem should show even higher levels of in-group bias BUT has not been supported with research
16
Q
Social Cognitive Theory
- Outline the theory
A
First developed by Bandura from his earlier theories of self-efficacy and social learning (both in SCT). SCT suggests behaviour influences and is influenced by the environment, which takes place through observational learning, and internal factors which is heavily affected by self-efficacy, the expectation of personal success in a task based on the view that one is in control of one’s abilities.
17
Q
Reciprocal Determinism
A
How we act is interconnected to our thoughts, belief and actions and affect or are affected by our own environments and social systems (may influence performance)
Triangle diagram between behaviour, personal factors and external factors
18
Q
Underlying Assumptions
A
- Social learning through observation and imitation of behaviour but generally depends on the consequences of behaviour. We learn through vicarious reinforcement (seeing if behaviour is rewarded or punished)
19
Q
4 cognitive mediational processes
- come into play when behaviour is observed
A
- Attention: the extent to which we notice and attend to certain behaviour
- Retention: how well observed behaviour is remembered
- Reproduction: ability of observer to physically replicate behaviour
- Motivation: will to perform behaviour, determined by consequence (uses vicarious reinforcement to determine)
1&2 are learning and 3&4 are performance
20
Q
Outline the process of modelling
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- People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate behaviour by identified role models which also influences identification
21
Q
Williams and Williams (Aim)
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Get more direct evidence for idea of reciprocal determinism
22
Q
Method (Williams and Williams)
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- Collected a large dataset of mathematics self-efficacy and achievement in 15 year old children across 33 nations
- Applying complex techniques of statistical modelling
23
Q
Results (Williams and Williams)
A
- Support of reciprocal determinism in 24 out a 33 nations as with self-efficacy that we can perform well we are motivated to perform well and thus when achieved further increases self-efficacy (cycle)
24
Q
Conclusion (Williams and Williams)
A
Supports reciprocal determinism and the idea that self-efficacy can influence behaviour.
- Cross-cultural suggests it is universal with lack of culture bias
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Evaluation (Williams and Williams)
- Sampling bias (students, age, math performance)
- Unique context of mathematics analysed only
- Statistical modeling objective - lack of experimenter bias
- Not vulnerable to demand characteristics: mathematical performance test with the expectation to do well
26
Charlton et al (Aim)
To investigate whether children in St. Helena would exhibit increased aggressive behaviour after the introduction of television
27
Method (Charlton et al)
- Natural experiment involving children aged 3-8 (observed)
- Introduction of television with levels of aggression as compared to children in UK
(children observed through cameras in playgrounds of 2 primary schools)
28
Results (Charlton et al)
- No increase in aggressive or antisocial behaviour even after 5 years despite same exposure to children in UK
29
Conclusion (Charlton et al)
- Supports SCT: lack of motivation due to high levels of social control in community as aggression was associated with punishment thus supporting vicarious reinforcement of 'non-aggressive' behaviour. Also supports the influence of external factors such as the environment on behaviour
- Doesn't support the idea of role models as there was no change in aggression despite TV displaying 'role models' exhibiting that behaviour.
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Evaluation (Charlton et al)
- High external validity -- can generalise
- Natural experiment
- Seen in children only so same may not be for adults
- Ethical implications of making children watch aggressive TV
- Bigger picture: only shows the influence of one aspect (external factors) on behaviour whereas reciprocal determinism shows the interconnecting variables of the internal and external factors.
31
Critical Thinking for Social Cognitive Theory
- Testable: able to test theory in the real world and gives high ecological validity but ethical implications of natural experiments (making children watch aggressive behaviour)
- Applications: theory has 'heuristic validity' as it explains a variety of behaviours so we can learn more and how to change/mitigate
- Constructs: motivation to replicate is difficult to measure (concept of vicarious reinforcement based on assumptions of what is happening cognitively, similarly for self-efficacy)
- Biased: theory leans more towards 'nurture' side of nature/nurture debate and SCT also struggles to explain individual differences BUT has garnered cross-cultural support (not deterministic but should be more balanced)
- Predictive power: Bandura proposed variables which increased likelihood of imitating behaviour such as identifying similarities between oneself and role model so it has GOOD PREDICTIVE POWER to identify situations where behaviour is more/less likely to be modelled
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Development of stereotypes
| - Outline the formation of stereotypes
1. Categorisation: Identify an out-group based on the characteristics we believe the out-group have in common (some use of schemas)
2. Out-group homogeneity: Presume out-group homogeneity with a tendency to overestimate similarities and results in thoughts of everyone behaving and believing the same way
3. Stereotype formed: Applying our belief to new members of the out-group meets the definition of a stereotype, making assumptions about other people based on little/no evidence
4. Social comparison: Likely to believe out-groups are inferior to in-groups (self-esteem and often negative aspects )
- can lead to confirmation bias where we pay attention to information that support argument
- Critical Thinking: using SIT to explain stereotype formation (self-esteem)
33
Schaller et al (Aim)
To test the role of in-group/out-group membership on the incidence and severity of stereotype formation
34
Method (Schaller et al)
- Opportunity sample of 141 university psychology students
- Ps were told they would be reading statements regarding the behaviour of individuals from two social groups, A and B
- They were also told that they had been assigned membership to either A or B based on earlier survey (actually random)
- A third group of Ps (control) were not allocated to any group
- Finally, Ps were told that A represented a much larger proportions than B
35
Results (Schaller et al)
- All Ps were likely to overestimate behaviour of out-group and positive behaviour of in-group
- Furthermore, Ps in control group were much more likely to presume behaviour would be predicted for Group B (minority) than for Group A
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Conclusion (Schaller et al)
- Minority groups are more predictable to result in homogeneity, easier to apply generalisations which form stereotypes
- Evidence for lack of membership group can still lead to stereotype formation of a minority
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Evaluation (Schaller et al)
- Limited, non-representative sample (problem of generalisation)
- Risk of demand characteristics as they are psychology students
38
Hamilton and Gifford
| - Outline theory
- Uses the concept of illusory correlation to explain how stereotypes arise
- Illusory correlation is when two relatively unusual events occur simultaneously and incorrect inference is drawn from this co-occurence as it is more memorable particularly when minority groups perform negative behaviour compared to majority groups
- Results in overplayed significance which could lead to racial stereotypes
39
Aim (Hamilton and Gifford)
To investigate illusory correlations based on the co-occurence of infrequent events
40
Method (Hamilton and Gifford)
- 104 undergraduates asked to read a series of sentences describing behaviours performed by members of group A and B
- B was minority and ratio of desirable to undesirable behaviours in both groups was exactly the same
- Undesirable behaviours were less frequent within both groups
- After reading, Ps asked to estimate how many members of each group performed each behaviour
41
Results (Hamilton and Gifford)
- Ps overestimated the frequency with which members of the minority group performed negative behaviours
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Conclusion (Hamilton and Gifford)
- There was perceived correlation between undesirable behaviour and group membership (illusory correlation caused by event distinctness)
- Co-occurence of two distinct events is overestimated thus resulting in future assumptions about the minority leading to stereotype formation since the event is memorable
43
Evaluation (Hamilton and Gifford)
- Difficult to retain all information - challenging experiment could result in guessing
- Primacy and regency effect - positive and negative behaviours mentioned at the beginning and end affect decision
- Each statement had names associated, common names might be associated with someone they know and thus associate a good or bad behaviour.
44
Effect of stereotypes
| - Stereotype threat
- Occurs when an individual is aware of negative stereotypical views of them. This effectively becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy as because we think others expect us to behave a certain way we become more likely to do so thus influencing behaviour and affecting performance
45
Reasons why behaviour is influenced by stereotypes
- Our self-identity is based on in-groups we feel we belong to, so we believe we are as the stereotype due to membership to that group
- Membership is important to maintain sense of belonging so we want to exhibit the behaviour of that group
- By having a stereotype salient, we could divert our cognitive attention from task at hand leading to underperformance
46
Steele and Aronson (Aim)
To see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African-Americans
47
Method (Steele and Aronson)
- 76 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University
- Ps given a standardised test of verbal ability and told one of two things
- - 1: to diagnose your intellectual ability (verbal)
- - 2: to test your problem solving skills
- Ps were randomly assigned to one condition but ensured each condition had equal no. of Ps
48
Results (Steele and Aronson)
- African-Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their ability (1) and scored 8 compared to 12
- BUT, did just as well as Americans when believed it was a test of problem solving skills (both 12)
49
Conclusion (Steele and Aronson)
- African-Americans performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition but equalled their performance in non-stereotype threat condition.
- Support theory since AA may not be as 'eloquent' as White Americans verbally
50
Evaluation (Steele and Aronson)
- Sample made up of Stanford University students (problem of generalisation)
- Study used independent samples designs with verbal scores from Ps SATs collected prior to ensure they were within normal performance (individual differences minimised)
- Although there is difference in average scores, may not be due to stereotype threats with salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during exam were not measured (later variations suggested this was the case)
51
Critical Thinking of effects of stereotypes
- Stereotype lift: - The reverse of threat and operates based on same concept of self-fulfilling prophecy but this time knowledge of relevant positive stereotypes can boost/improve behaviour and performance
- Application to mitigate stereotype threat
52
Critical Thinking of formation of stereotypes
- Importance lies in learning how their formed in order to educate children how to prevent negative stereotypes from being made -- can mitigate potential racism
53
Culture and its influence on behaviour and cognition
| - Culture and behaviour
- In the explanation of human behaviour, psychologists have to consider and explain cultural variations in behaviour (individual differences)
- - careful of ecological fallacy, inferring information about individuals based simply on assessment of the group to which they belong
- - analysing and understanding cultural behaviour doesn't mean individual behaviour
- - investigating one individual (more complex requiring consideration of numerous interconnecting variables)
54
Cultural dimensions
Hofstede distributed questionnaires to 117,000 IBM employees across 40 countries asking about values and behaviours. Having derived several trends from them, he labelled them as cultural dimensions and felt that they could be used to simplify and standardise cross cultural behavioural analysis and understanding.
55
Individualism vs collectivism
- Individualistic: members define their identity according to personal characteristics, themselves and direct family only
- -- (value self-autonomy, competitiveness and self-sufficiency)
- Collectivist: identity more often connected to a social groups, with group characteristics influencing personal identity
- -- (value communal responsibilities and relationships with the group)
56
Power Distance Index
- A measure of the extent to which the less-powerful members of a group accept and expect that power will be distributed evenly
- - Low PDI: power equally distributed, no stringent hierarchies (intolerant of unjustified and inequality)
- - High PDI: power not equally distributed, hierarchal by nature (tolerant of inequality with large gaps in compensation, authority and respect)
57
Critical Thinking of Cultural Dimensions
- None of the dimensions act in isolation with correlations found frequently between them so its questionable to examine the effects of any one dimension on its own
- Each dimension may be expressed differently in each culture (some more relevant)
e. g collectivist could be government sharing vs sharing among small village
- There may be variation within dimensions (Korean vs Kenyan collectivism are different)
- - Can be further broken down into:
- ----- Horizontal collectivism: members merge with in-group and all share same status
- ---- Vertical collectivism: members merge with in-group and submit to authority within
- Societies becoming increasingly multi-cultural so questions relevance of dimensions in predicting for a singular culture
- Dimensions might become another form of stereotyping despite awareness of ecological fallacy
58
Eylon and Au (Aim)
To examine the effects of empowerment on work satisfaction and performance based on PDI
59
Method (Eylon and Au)
- 135 Ps who were MBA students from a Canadian University
- Ps were divided into high PDI and low PDI groups based on language and country of origin
- Members of each group were then put through 3 conditions: empowered, disempowered and a control
60
Results (Eylon and Au)
- All Ps were more satisfied when empowered than not empowered regardless of PDI
- However, differences in work performance
- --- Low PDI: did less well when disempowered
- --- High PDI: did significantly less well in empowered condition
61
Conclusion (Eylon and Au)
Supports PDI
- High PDI perform better when disempowered as they are used to the hierarchy with more structured tasks given explicit responsibility
- Low PDI perform worse when disempowered as they like to do things themselves and don't like restrictions in responsibility
62
Evaluation (Eylon and Au)
- Sample size small, also not representative of every culture
- Ecological fallacy since people put in PDI based on language and country -- form of stereotyping
- CLEVER HOWEVER, multinational companies can maximise work efficiency based on the branch of office
63
Smith and Bond (Aim)
How culture affects conformity
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Method (Smith and Bond)
- A meta-analysis of the results of 132 studies that used Asch's line-judging task (Asch was not looking at culture and conformity)
- - Asch's line judging task involved Ps being asked which line looked most like X as 4 lines X, A, B and C were drawn of varying lengths but X and B were quite obviously the same length
- - Ps were in a room with 7-9 confederates which would say the obvious wrong answer
- - Test whether P would conform to majority view although it was obviously wrong
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Results (Smith and Bond)
- People from more individualist cultures (usually Western) conformed less than those from more collectivist culture (Eastern, Asian)
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Evaluation (Smith and Bond)
- Asch identified normative conformity: when a person conforms to the group norms in order not to be isolated
- - seems reductionist for the idea of conformity to be influenced by culture alone as stereotypical individualist= western and collectivist = asian with degrees of dimensions varying
- However, a trend was discernible despite assumptions of cultures
- Large sample size so generalisation
67
Cultural influences on individual behaviour
| - Define culture
A generic term referring to the use of certain tools, practices and beliefs that groups use to survive and thrive in their environment
68
Cultural norms
Unique set of attitudes, beliefs and behaviours deemed appropriate and acceptable by a particular culture
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Enculturation
The process by which individuals learn their culture and involves understanding social norms and values
- It is adaptive and helps us to survive and thrive in our culture ensuring the continuity of cultural practices passed down generations
- It is important that we learn a culture's norms in order to function successfully within it
70
Outline the processes of cultural transmission
- Vertical cultural transmission
- Horizontal culture transmission
- Oblique cultural transmission
- Vertical: from parents to children
- Horizontal: through siblings and friends
- Oblique: other adults and social interactions
71
Outline the 2 processes of enculturation
- Direct tuition: parents telling you what you are supposed to do
- Observational learning
72
Odden and Rochat (Aim)
Study of observational learning on the development of cultural norms in Samoa
- Samoan culture is very hierarchal with high PDI with ranking of parent and children limiting interactions
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Method (Odden and Rochat)
- Looked at behaviour of line fishing and conceptual understanding of rank and hierarchy
- Longitudinal study of 25 months on 28 children in a single samoan village
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Results (Odden and Rochat)
- Young males spend a lot of time watching adult males dish but there is no direct tuition
- 10 years old: borrow fishing equipment and experiment without adult supervision
- 12 years old: children were able to fish on their own
- Learnt social rules regarding how to behave with people of higher rank, and how chief system works on the island through observational learning
- Multiple choice knowledge test showed majority of 46 12 year olds had broad understanding of concepts and rituals of their society
75
Conclusion (Odden and Rochat)
- Supports that cultural norms can be learnt through observational learning actively by children of adults
- The continuity of cultural practices passed down to one generation occurs through observational learning in this case
76
Evaluation (Odden and Rochat)
- High ecological validity
- Unable to generalise (one village) and only males
- unique context since parents are usually heavily involved in teaching the child (direct tuition)
77
Lamm
The effect of enculturation on behaviour
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Aim (Lamm)
Comparing the ability of a German and Cameroonian four-year old preschool children to delay gratification and wait for a treat
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Method (Lamm)
- Lab experiment where the marshmallow test involves children being left in a room by themselves when they are given a marshmallow.
- The researcher tells them that they have to leave for a moment, but if they wait, and don't eat the marshmallow until they come back they can get a second one.
- The researchers also gathered data on the values of parents and their parenting styles
80
Results (Lamm)
- 70% of Camerioonian children were able to wait for a treat compared to 30% of German children,
- Cameroonian mothers placed more emphasis on "hierarchal relational socialisation" and placed strict emphasis on conforming to social norms
- German mothers had more emphasis on "psychological autonomous socialisation" which means allowing more individuality and personal freedom.
- Significant positive correlation (0.25) between values placed on hierarchy by mothers and the child's ability to delay gratification.
81
Conclusion (Lamm)
- Supports vertical transmission since different parenting styles and values have shown to have an effect on the behaviour of children.
- Cameroonian children are better at waiting for a treat because they are used to following rules given to them. (following social norms set by others)
- German children are used to more autonomy and freeodm so they find it harder to wait because they are not used to doing what they're told.
82
Critical Thinking of Enculturation
- Enculturation can be liberal or restrictive depending on the government or authority of which the values and culture is established
83
Acculturation
- A process of psychological and cultural change resulting from an interaction between cultures.
- Often takes place between dominant and non-dominant cultures resulting changes in both
- Focus on acculturation is being driven by increasing and accelerating globalisation (contact with other cultures inevitable)
84
4 strategies to deal with cultural change
- Assimilation
- Integration
- Separation
- Marginalisation
- Assimilation: Individuals open to change without concern of loss of their original culture (interaction with new culture actively sought out with willingness to adapt)
- Integration: Individuals want to retain their cultural beliefs and values but want interaction with and become an integral part of new culture too (bi-cultural)
- Separation: individuals avoid contact with new culture owing desire to retain their own values and traditions
- Marginalisation: individuals have little interest in interacting with new culture, but also have little interest in retaining their own culture (leading to cultural loss)
85
Ishizawa and Jones
Acculturation and obesity in Asian migrants to the USA
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Aim (Ishizawa and Jones)
Study of 'unhealthy' assimilation when health of migrants converges to a less healthy cultural norms
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Method (Ishizawa and Jones)
Longitudinal study of Asian migrants across 3 generations and their health
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Results (Ishizawa and Jones)
2nd and 3rd generation migrants had a higher level of obesity than 1st generation migrants or individuals (integration to assimilation) `
BUT living in a neighbourhood with high asian migrant density and households that retained their original language acted as buffers against the unhealthy lifestyle and obesity (separation)
89
Conclusion (Ishizawa and Jones)
Environment mitigated 'unhealthy assimilation' with neighbourhoods allowing them to retain their culture
90
Evaluation (Ishizawa and Jones)
- Study of asian migrants (problem of generalisation)
- Longitudinal gives high support
- High ecological validity
91
Lueck and Wilson (Aim)
Investigated the variables that may predict and influence experience of acculturative stress
92
Method (Lueck and Wilson)
- 2000 Asian-Americans where half of the sample was born in Asia and had immigrated to America after the age of 18 while the other half were born in America
- A variety of Asian cultures were represented (Chinese, Vietnamese etc) and the interviewers had a similar cultural background to the Ps and could speak their native language.
- The Ps were interviewed about their acculturation experiences. Questions consisted of standard questions following additional questions.
- The interviews measured the Ps' level of acculturative stress and the impact of language proficiency, discrimination, family and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.
93
Results (Lueck and Wilson)
- 70% of Ps reported feelings of acculturation stress
- Ps who were fully bilingual had the lowest rates of acculturation stress.
- Ps who shared similar values with their family had lower acculturation stress.
- Experiences of discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping significantly increased acculturation stress
94
Conclusion (Lueck and Wilson)
- Being fully bilingual helped Ps maintain strong ties to their Asian culture while also being able to integrate in American society. Stress may arise when the Asian Americans do not know the relative language well enough to discuss sensitive issues with family at home or with friends. (integration reduces while assimilation may create stress)
- Similar values reduce the risk of family conflict over different cultural values. Those wanting to adhere to original cultural values would feel less inclined to engage in behaviour not deemed appropriate so there would be less confusion for the P and thus less conflict with how they should act. (integration)
- While acculturative stress is common, it is not inevitable and there are numerous factors that serve to mitigate the extent to which it is experienced.
95
Evaluation (Lueck and Wilson)
- Large sample size which is diverse, comprised of different cultures, and the use of interviewers who had the same cultural and language background as the Ps ensured there were no misinterpretations or mistranslations.
- It is difficult and time-consuming to analyse such a large amount of interview data. Risk of researcher bias.
- Subjective to an extent such as measuring acculturative stress, salience of events to the individual (self-report from interview)
96
Critical Thinking of Acculturation
| - Berry's 4 strategies model
Acculturation:
- Generalisation is problematic: studies focus on movement of people from traditionalist, poor countries to more liberal wealthier areas
- Research methodologies centre around self-report measures (social desirability bias and demand characteristics)
Berry's model:
- Face validity: works in many cases and allows predictions about attitudes to be made (Organista et al supports that fewest people chose separation while large number chose assimilation, globalisation)
- Two or more ethnicities and cultures: not applicable and more difficult to apply since individuals must prioritise ONE culture (increased global identities)
97
Evaluation (Lamm)
- Despite positive correlation it is weak at 0.25, suggesting that the relationship between hierarchal values taught and the ability to delay gratification is a weak one.
- Further studies (Ayduk et al) found that kids who can wait for the bigger reward when they are younger grow up to do better in schools and are better able to cope with stress and less likely to commit crime. Might reductionist to assume a children's success is dependent on their upbringing.
- Limited generalisation since different cultures have different upbringings (only 2 cultures compared)
